
Class _2_Hi2lX^ 
Book jtl-qU- 



Copyright}^". 



fe 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



PLUMBERS' MANUAL 



AJNTD 



TEXT BOOK 



Dictionary of Plumbing Terms tvith 

Miscellaneous Information 

Useful to Plumbers. 



Arranged anc^ Cop\Tighted by 

F. W. TOWER, 

Inspector of Plumbing, Springfield, 3Iass. 



PRESS OF E. M. LYMAlf & SOJf, 
1901. 



THE LIBRARY OF 

CONGRESS, 
Two CoHi^ Received 

OCT. t1 1901 

Q Copyright entry 
CLASS ^ XXa No. 

COPY a 



,V 



^ 









Entered Accordi>g to the Act of Cojjgkess 
IN the year 1901, 

By F. y^. TOWER, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress 
At Washington. 



d 



LC Control Number 




tmp96 026511 



PREFACE. 



It is essential to the future prospects of tlie 
Plumber that he be thoroughly equipped for his 
duties. 

It is necessary that the work of the Plumber 
should be intelligently arranged and conscien- 
tiously performed. 

This book is designed to give helpful informa- 
tion to all engaged in the Plumbing Industry. 

F. W. Tower, 
June 1, 1901. Springfield, Mass. 



TOPICS. 

WATER AND ITS DISTRIBUTION. 
Gravity Supply. 
Wells. Pumps. 
Hydkaulic Ram. 
Water Meters. 
Filters and Filtration. 
Boilers. Tanks. 
Metals. Solder. Plumber's Joints. 



WASTE AND DRAINAGE VENTILATION. 
Ventilation. 
Drainage. Subsoil. 
Traps and Siphonage. 
Fixtures: Sinks, Lavatories, Baths, 

Laundry Tubs, Urinals, Water 

Closets. 



Miscellaneous. 
Questions and Answers. 
Plumbers' Dictionary. 



WATER. 



Water is next to air in importance for support- 
ing life and is of more consequence than food. 
Not only is water necessary for supporting life, 
but also for maintaining it in a healthy condi- 
tion. The water supply must be free from im- 
purities, and next to quality, quantity is necessary. 
Perfectly pure water can only be obtained arti- 
ficially by distillation ; when met with in the 
natural state it is never pure. Rain water con- 
tains the impurities which it has contracted by 
passing through the atmosphere. Spring and 
river water is still more impure, as it contains 
the mineral constituents which it has dissolved 
from the strata with which it has come in con- 
tact. 

In the pure state and at the ordinary tempera- 
ture, water is transparent, free from taste and 
smell, and almost colorless. It is about 770 times 
denser than the atmosphere, and is the standard 
to which all specific quantities of solid and liquid 
substances are referred, the temperatures in the 
United States being taken at 60° Fahrenheit. 
At 39.2° water is at its greatest density, expand- 



O WATER. 

ing whether its temperature be increased or di- 
minished. 

Water occurs in the solid state at temperatures 
below 32°, and in the gaseous state ^t tempera- 
tures above 212°, but it evaporates at all temper- 
atures, aqueous vapor constantly being present 
in the atrriosphere. 

Water is almost inelastic. Its specific heat is 
higher than that of any other substance, and is a 
very poor conductor of heat, although heat is 
rai)idly diffused throughout its mass by convec- 
tion, warm water being lighter than cold. In 
freezing, water expands with a i^ressure of 30,000 
lbs. per square inch, the ice being about one- 
eleventh larger than when liquid. At the boiling 
l)oint, a given bulk of water is converted into 
1600 times its volume of steam. Water is com- 
posed of two volumes of hydrogen and one of 
oxygen. 

The most of those bodies which depend on the 
fluid state, and that, indeed, by which this state 
is mainly distinguished from the solid, is the 
power to transmit pressure equally in every di- 
rection. 

By this singular power to transmit pressure, a 
fluid becomes, in the strictest sense of the term, 
a machine, — and one of unequalled simplicity 
and almost unlimited power. This property of 
liquids points them out as an easy, simple and 
effectual means of transmitting force to any dis- 
tance, and under circumstances in which other 



WATER. 9 

mechanical contrivances would be totally inappli- 
cable. 

It is only necessary to install a tube filled with 
a liquid from the point where the force origi- 
nates, to the point to which it is to be transmit- 
ted ; and as the shape or position of the connect- 
ing tube or pipe does not affect the property of 
the fluid which it contains, there is scarcely any 
conceivable impediment which can prevent the 
transmission of the force from one point to the 
other. 

A pressure excited on the liquid at one end of 
the tube will be communicated to any surface in 
contact with the liquid at the other end, whether 
the tube be straight, curved or angular, or 
whether it pass upwards, downwards, or in an 
oblique or horizontal direction. 

In the same manner and upon the same princi- 
ple as it transmits and modifies other forces, it 
conveys the effect of its own weight through the 
dimensions which it occupies in the vessel which 
contains it. This weight exerts a certain pressure 
on every part of the surface of the containing 
vessel with which it is in contact. Generally the 
effect is totally different from that which would 
be produced by a solid. 

There is one general principle by which the 
pressure of a liquid on the surface of the vessel 
which contains it may always be ascertained. Each 
part of the surface of the vessel, in contact with the 
liquid, sustains a pressure equal to the weight of 



10 WATER. 

a column of the liquid below the surface. Gen- 
erally in every vessel whose sides are perpendic- 
ular, and whose bottom is horizontal, whatever 
its shape in other respects, the pressure on the 
bottom will be equal to the whole weight of the 
fluid which it contains, while the pressure on 
each square inch of the perpendicular sides will 
be equal to the weight of a column of the liquid, 
whose base is a square inch, and whose height is 
equal to the depth of the part of the surface of 
the vessel below the upper surface of the liquid 
in the vessel. 

Not only the surface of the vessel which con- 
tains a liquid, but likewise every part of the 
liquid itself, sustains a pressure from the weight 
of the liquid above it, and also transmits this 
pressure in every direction around it, downward, 
laterally, obliquely, etc. If it did not encounter 
an equal pressure in all directions it would move 
in the direction in which its force was unresisted, 
but in a vessel no such motion takes place, and 
as the particles of the fluid remain at rest it 
follows that they are maintained in their places 
by forces pressing them equally on every side, 
and from every possible direction each of which 
is equal to the weight of the perpendicular col- 
umn of fluid above the particles so pressed. 

Whatever be the shape of the vessel which con- 
tains a liquid, each square inch of its surface suf- 
fers a pressure equal to the weight of a column 
of the liquid, whose base is a square inch, and 



WATER. 11 

whose height is the depth of that part of the sur- 
face of the vessel below the surface of the liquid. 

If the surface which sustains the pressure be 
horizontal, every part of it being 9ct the same 
depth will suffer the same pressure. 

In this case, the total pressure which the sur- 
face sustains, is the weight of all liquid which is 
perpendicular over it. If the surface which suf- 
fers the pressure be not horizontal, its several 
parts will be at different depths and therefore 
will suft'er different pressures. 

The perpendicular sides of a trough, when 
filled with a liquid, will sustain the same pi^ssure 
whether the trough be wide or narrow. The 
pressure on the perpendicular side is entirely 
independent of the quantity of liquid which the 
vessel contains. 

In tall, narrow vessels the lateral pressure very 
far exceeds the downward pressure which is 
equal to the weight. 

The various parts of any surface, whatever be 
its form, will be subject to pressures, depending 
on their depths below the surface of the liquid, 
all points at the same depths having the same 
pressure. 

There is a certain pressure or mean of all var- 
ious pressures, to which the points of the sur- 
face are subject: and whatever this pressure be, 
it must be such, that if spread over the whole sur- 
face, the total amount of the pressure on that 
surface will not be altered. 



12 WATEK. 

The buoyancy of solids immersed in liquids is 
frequently used as a means in regulating the 
supply of reservoirs, in which it is necessary to 
maintain the liquid at a certain level. 

If a solid body float on the surface, it will rise 
and fall with every change of level of the sur- 
face, if any impediment prevents its ascent or 
descent on the surface of the liquid, it will exert 
a force in the one case by its buoyancy, and in 
the other by its weight, to overcome such im- 
pediment. 

The floating body is usually connected by a 
wire or lever with a valve or cock, which governs 
the supply. 

When the vessel is filled to a certain height, 
the float being raised to that height acts by 
the wire or lever, so as to close the valve and 
stop the further supply of the liquid. 

If, on the other hand, by use or waste, the 
level of the liquid falls, and the reservoir needs 
replenishing, the float descends, and, acting on 
the valve in the contrary direction, opens it and 
admits the required supply. Examples of this 
may be seen in the ordinary cistern and for sup- 
plying water for domestic purposes when the 
supply is constant and the demand intermittent. 

In the construction of pipes for the supply of 
water to cities, it is necessary that those parts 
which are much below the level of the reservoir 
from which the water is sui)plied, should have a 
greater strength than is requisite in those which 



WATEK. 13 

are in more elevated situations. A pressure 
always acts upon the inner surface of the pipe, 
tending to burst it, which may be estimated by 
calculating that in 27.71 inches in depth, a pres- 
sure of one pound will be produced upon every 
square inch of surface. If the pressure arising 
from the weight of a liquid be propoitional to the 
depth, and that pressure be transmitted equally 
in every direction, it will follow that the sur- 
face of all parts of a liquid contained in the same 
vessel, or in two or more vessels between which 
there is free communication by tubes or pipes, 
must be always at the same level, the liquid will 
by its gravity return to it, the higher parts falling, 
and the lower parts rising, until the level be 
restored. 

The properties in virtue of which liquids main- 
tain their levels, and transmit pressure, are the 
cause of most of the phenomena exhibited in the 
various motions and changes to which water is 
subject on the surface of the earth. 

The rain which falls on the tops of mountains 
and other elevated planes, collects in rills, which 
uniting, form streams. 

These descending gradually encounter others 
until a river is formed, which finally comes to the 
ocean whose waters had been originally taken up 
in the form of vapor. 

Throughout the whole of this period, the only 
principle in operation is the tendency of a liquid 
to find its level. 



14 WATER. 

In some cases the rain which is lodged on ele- 
vated grounds meets a soil of spongy or porous 
nature, or one which by various crevices is per- 
vious by water. 

In such cases the liquid often passes to very 
great depths before it encounters a barrier formed 
by an impenetrable strata. 

When it does, and is confined, it is subject to 
a considerable hydrostatic pressure from the 
water which fills the more elevated veins by 
which it is fed. 

This pressure frequently forces the water to 
break a passage through the surface, and it 
gushes out in a spring, which ultimately en- 
larges into a tributary stream of some river. In 
some cases the water which is filtered through 
the earth is confined by impenetrable barriers in 
subterranean reservoirs, barriers, the strength of 
which exceeds the hydrostatic pressure. 

If the ground perpendicularly above such a 
barrier be opened, and a pit sunk to such a depth 
as will penetrate those strata of earth which are 
impervious to water, the liquid in the subterra- 
nean reservoir, having then free admission to the 
pit, will rise in it until it attains the level which 
it has in the channels from which it is supplied. 

If this level be above the surface of the ground 
it will have a tendency to rush upward forming 
a fountain. 

If the level of the source be nearly equal to 
that of the mouth of the pit, the water will rise 



WATER. 15 

to that level and there stand ; it will form a well. 

If the level of the source be considerably below 
the mouth of the pit the water will not rise be- 
yond a certain height, corresponding to the level 
of its source. 

The method of supplying water for towns de- 
pends upon the property of maintaining its 
level. 

A reservoir is selected in some situation more 
elevated than those places to which the water is 
to be supplied. 

This reservoir may be fed either from natural 
sources or by mechanical power. 

Pipes are conducted from it, usually under- 
ground, through all parts of the town ; and from 
the main pipes smaller ones pass into each house. 

Street mains are almost invariably made of 
cast iron and usually tar coated. 

The material of which the house branches are 
made is of considerable importance, first as re- 
gards health and secondly as regards expense. 

Plain black iron pipe is non-poisonous, cheap 
and easily put together, but soon gathers rust 
and is eaten away. 

As the rust gathers on the internal surface the 
bore of the pipe is gradually closed, thus, after 
a few years necessitating a new pipe. Iron pipes 
protected by galvanizing are always rough on the 
inside and the zinc coating only lasts a short 
time. 

The water way of an iron pipe is considerably 



16 WATER. 

reduced when rust forms and the roughness of 
the rusted surface will also retard the velocity of 
the water, the friction being so great as to reduce 
the quantity of water delivered nearly 50 per 
cent when compared with a new pipe, or one of 
lead. 

More water will pass through a lead pipe than 
through either of the other kinds in a given 
time, assuming that all other conditions are 
equal. 

This is owing to its smoothness inside, and, 
when properly laid the absence of any sharp 
elbows or bends, lessens the friction. 

Also with the use of lead pipe no iron rust enters 
the storage tank or causes ball valves or faucets 
to constantly leak. 

If all lead is too expensive, a pipe of iron, 
lined wath lead is procurable and if any fear of 
lead poisoning exists an iron pipe lined with 
pure tin can be procured. 

The constant digging up of a city's streets to 
replace old rusty service pipes of iron entails 
great expense, and usually this additional re- 
laying of a service pipe is made at the expense of 
the householder. 

All water pipes laid outside of a building 
should be so far below the surface that frost will 
not reach them, usually from three to five feet 
according to the porosity of the soil and the condi- 
tion of the climate. 

It is considered prudent to have a stop cock 



WATEH. 17 

box outside the building for the householder to 
be enabled to control the whole line from the 
street line to the cellar where another stop cock 
or wheel valve with waste tube or opening, 
should be provided to allow all water pipes to be 
emptied when the valve is closed. This waste 
opening is necessary to empty the pipes to pre- 
vent any water remaining in pipe to freeze in 
cold weather or to allow the pipe to drain in 
making repairs. 

The object of the stop cock outside the build- 
ing is for the purpose of enabling the householder 
to be independent in controlling his own water 
supply, as the water department will not allow 
interference with pipes in the street or their own 
stop cocks. 

The service pipe should be laid with an even 
grade to the stop cocks to enable the water to be 
drained. 

If any sags or depressions occur the water will 
lodge and cause trouble. 

The proper manner for supporting water pipe 
of lead in a building is to fasten a board with a 
''ground" under the pipe and this furnishes a 
good support its entire length. 

Do not use pipe hooks, bands or tacks for sup- 
porting horizontal pipes of lead, as the lead pipe, 
will, of its own weight, sag between these sup- 
ports, especially noticeable in hot water pipes. 

The heated water will cause the pipe to elon- 
gate and it never returns to its original position. 



18 WATER. 

The position of service pipes should always be 
considered as much from danger of frost, the 
noise they convey and also condensation. 

In certain conditions of the atmosphere a great 
deal of moisture will gather or condense on the 
pipes and drip on walls or floors. 

This condensation is caused by the difference 
in temperature between the water in the pipe and 
the room through which the pipe passes. 

The thickness and weight of lead pipe for ser- 
vice should be determined by the pressure ex- 
isting in the locality in which the pipe is to be 
used. 

The fall or head, when water is flowing with- 
out valves of any kind, allows the use of lighter 
pipe than when opening and closing of faucets is 
necessary. 

The size of pipe from main to building should 
be considered, taking frictional loss, distance 
run, and needs of a building into account. 

A large pipe offers less frictional resistance 
than a small one by a large per cent. 

This should be taken into account especially 
with high buildings and a pipe, that will not 
form incrustation on its inner surface, will offer 
less resistance than one with rough surfaces and 
smaller sizes could be used. 

Pipes should always be placed away from out- 
er walls or where cold draughts will strike them, 
but if unable to so place them always protect 
them by covering with paper or felting. 



WATEK. 19 

When a heavy pressure is niaintained, a stor- 
age tank should be placed in the upper part of a 
building, thus necessitating only one extra heavy 
cold water service pipe. 

This method lessens the liability of bursting 
or straining a pipe vrhen a faucet is suddenly 
closed. 

With a tank pressure an even tension is main- 
tained and lighter weights of lead pipe can be 
used. 

The volume of water that will be delivered to 
a building in a given time depends principally 
upon the pressure of the water and the diameter 
of the service pipe. 

The pressure, however, is the most important 
because this cannot always be changed to suit 
the circumstances, while the size of the pipe 
which supplies the building from the street main 
may be made to meet the requirements of the 
building. 

Ascertain just how high the water will rise be- 
fore commencing the plumbing work because the 
system of piping, or the method of supplying 
and distributing the water, best adapted for the 
building will depend chiefly upon the height to 
which the water can be depended upon to rise. 

This height can be ascertained by applying a 
pressure gauge to the service pipe and computing 
the vertical height of a column of water required 
to counterbalance the pressure indicated. It 
often happens that the water will rise and sup- 



20 WATEK. 

ply the top floors of a building during the night, 
but not during the day. 

This is due to larger quantities of water being 
drawn from the street mains during the day than 
during the night. 

When such a condition as this occurs, it is a 
simple matter to locate a common house tank 
above the highest fixture, large enough to hold a 
three days' supply. 

The service pipe should be large, so that when 
the pressure comes on, the tank will fill quickly 
in order to supply the building when needed. 
This is called an intermittent supply. 

The irregular street pressure is often caused by 
the lower part of a town being mainly devoted 
to manufacturing purposes, and the upper part 
to residences. 

All the systems of plumbing done in the lower 
portion of a town may be connected directly to 
the street mains and be constantly subject to the 
street pressure, while those in the higher section 
must have storage tanks and operate under tank 
pressure owing to the intermittent supply. 

Those parts of the buildings which can be sup- 
plied from the mains should be directly connected 
to the street pressure because water taken 
directly from the mains is more wholesome than 
that which has stood in house tanks. 

The most common method of connecting the 
tank to the street service and the house dis- 
tributing pipes, and probably the best, is simply 



FRICTION. 21 

to extend the service pipe from the street main 
up to the tank, taking off as many branches as 
can be safely supplied at all times by the street 
pressure. When the water pressure is great 
enough in the mains, water will rise through this 
pipe and overflow into the tank, where it is 
stored until drawn at the fixtures. 

To prevent the tank from overflowing, the flow 
into tank should be governed by an automatic 
regulator. 

FRICTION. 



When water flows through any channel, or 
through pipes under pressure, it meets with re- 
sistances which retards its motion and reduces its 
pressure, and these resistances are called friction. 

Particles of water move with great freedom 
among themselves, and observed when in rapid 
motion, they are seen striking the pipe, rebound- 
ing and striking other particles of water, which 
in time rub against and obstruct others. The 
further away from the sides of the channel, 
which is the cause of this commotion, the less 
the disturbance and the more rapid the flow. 

Therefore the greater the head the faster 
the flow, the greater the commotion caused 
and the greater the resistance ; also, the 
larger the channel or pipe, the less would this 
commotion penetrate the central part of the 
stream. 



22 FRICTIOX. 

It is to tlie fact of a confined channel and the 
forward motion of the whole stream that this 
movement of the particles of water among them- 
selves, and consequent resistance is due, and so 
long as there is forward motion this resistance 
must continue. 

Areas of circles are to each other as the square 
of their diameter. 

Usually it is considered that doubling the size 
of the pipe decreases the friction loss at the same 
velocity of motion in the pipe one half, or, the 
friction loss at equal velocities in different sized 
pipes practically varies in the ratio of pipe sur- 
face or circumferance to cross section. 

It may be stated as near enough for most prac- 
tical purposes that when delivering the same 
number of gallons per minute, the friction loss in 
two pipes of equal lengths, the diameter of one 
of which is twice that of the other, the loss in the 
larger will be l-30th of that in the smaller, or 
the loss in the smaller will be 30 times that in 
the larger. 

This relation of volume, or number of gallons 
per minute, to friction in different sized pipe 
should not be overlooked when calculating water 
supplies. 

In laying pipes all bends and elbows should be 
avoided as much as possible. When necessary 
they should be as large as possible and direction 
changed gradually. 

Sudden changes destroy the velocity very 



AIK LOCKS. 23 

rapidly and consequently reduce the discharge. 
A reduction or increase in size of pipe owing to 
screwing on of branch pipes smaller or greater, 
also reduces velocity. 

AIR LOCKS. 



The effect of the sagging of a lead pipe between 
its support, is, that air will collect in the high 
parts of the bends, and will form air locks. 
These greatly impede the flow of water through 
the pipe. 

If the pressure is light and the sags are many 
they may stop the flow entirely. 

Thus a long waste pipe in that condition 
might prevent the passage of water, and would 
appear to be -choked by refuse, although the 
trouble was wholly due to air locks. 

If air has accumulated in the upper bends the 
water will rise on one side of the bend and 
slightly compress the air which is entrapped at 
those points. 

The air will depress the water on the other side 
of the bend, raising its surface at the next upper 
bend. 

The difference in level between the surfaces of 
the water on the opposite sides of a bend is the 
measure of the resistance which the air in that 
bend offers to the passage of water. 

The effects of the air accummulations are 



24 WATER HAMMEK. 

chiefly observed in low pressure systems, for 
instance, those which are supplied with water 
from house tanks. 

The reason is, that the pressure due to the 
head between the air locks and the tank is too 
low usually to force the air out of the pipe. It is 
different, however, when the system is under 
high pressure, because then the pressure is 
usually sufficient to force the air out of the 
pipes along with the water. 

A common cause of air lock in a building is 
that in which a lead hot water pipe is run over 
the floor beams for a considerable distance and 
when the pipe is not supported uniformly 
throughout its length. 

WATER HAMMER. 



Water under pressure in pipes is subject to an 
accelerating force, or force of gravity, to a certain 
extent, in the same manner as a body falling 
through the air. 

It is subject to resistance by friction against 
the sides of the pipe just as a body is subject to 
resistance by the air. 

When water is flowing through a pipe and is 
suddenly checked, a noise is heard caused by 
the striking of the water against the end of the 
pipe or whatever is i)laced as a barrier to stop the 
flow. 



WATER HAMMEIl. 25 

The noise is heard at every part of the pipe 
throughout its length, but not always at the 
same instant of time. 

In the case of a long length of service pipe, the 
noises Jtppear to repeat very quickly, so that the 
water hammer is known as "chattering." 

Length of pipe has a great deal to do with the 
noise, that is, the longer the pipe the greater the 
noise. 

When self-closing faucets are used, or quickly 
turned, w^ater hammer almost always occurs 
owing to the sudden stoppage of the flow of 
water. 

When slow closing faucets are used it is seldom 
that water hammer occurs. 

Faucets that gradually check the flow of water 
are admirable to use to prevent water hammer. 

^ot only is the sound of water hammer objec- 
tionable, but the force created is often sufficient 
to burst the pipes. 

Often an initial pressure is increased fourfold 
by a suddenly closed valve. 

Experience teaches that an air cushion or 
chamber is of great value for slowly arresting the 
flow of water in pipes and preventing sudden 
shocks. 

As air is an elastic fluid and cao be either com- 
pressed or expanded according to the amount of 
pressure exerted, an air chamber on a line with 
the water current will act efficiently and satisfac- 
torily until the air has been exhausted. 



26 SERVICE PIPES. 

This may occur by the great force expended 
each time the flow is checked and the constant 
opening of a faucet near the chamber. 

xl small pipe is not as efficient as one of larger 
calibre although a long air chamber of sn^all pipe 
may contain as much air as a short chamber of 
large diameter. 

As water absorbs air, provision should be made 
for admitting air whenever the chamber becomes 
exhausted. 

A small air cock attached to the end of the air- 
chamber will answer the purpose when the water 
has been shut off. 

An air chamber should be made of stout mate- 
rial as it has to withstand a very heavy force 
when the flow of water in the pipe is suddenly 
checked. 

SERVICE PIPES. 



Various kinds of material are used for service 
pipes in different localities and chosen usually 
according to the adaptibility of the water to the 
material of which the pipe is composed. 

Plain iron is non-poisonous, cheap and easily 
jointed, but soon gathers rust filling the bore of 
the pipe and is eaten away soon requiring new. 

Galvanized iron or zinc coated will retain its 
coating on the inside a very little longer than the 
plain, but when this coating begins to scale, as it 
will, the water may become dangerous, as the 



SERVICE PIPES. 21 

salts of zinc are poisonous with some waters, 
if taken in sufficient quantity. 

Tar coated iron is used extensively on account 
of its cheapness, is a slight protection on the in- 
side of the pipe, but its inner surface of tar will 
be removed by friction in less than a year. 

Its advantage lies in the fact that outside con- 
tact with all kinds of soil w^ill not affect it as 
rapidly as the plain iron. 

Plain iron being affected by both outside and 
inside corrosion thus hastening its decay. 

Enameled or rubber coated is another effort to 
prevent rapid rusting. 

When the pipe is cut or bent the coating 
cracks thus exposing the plain surface to the 
action of the water. 

Pure tin pipe is perfectly safe, non corrosive, 
but diffcult to work, as a special solder called 
'•Bismuth solder," is necessary to joint if wiped. 

The pipe is very liable to crack at the edge of 
joint and leaks are difficult to repair. 

Tin lined lead pipe is easily worked and less 
expensive. 

Brass pipe is very durable, if properly annealed, 
light, strong and easily jointed. 

It is said to be poisonous when used to con- 
duct water for drinking purposes. 

Copper pipes are not used as a cold supply, 
but frequently used on hot water connections be- 
tween range and boiler, being very durable and 
well adapted for this purpose. 



28 wp:lls. 

Lead pipe is durable, strong and pliable, but 
witli some soft waters it corrodes and if soluble 
becomes injurious to health. 

Lead is generally preferred for house connec- 
tions owing to the facility with which it can be 
adapted to the structural requirements. 

The real objection to it is, that it is attacked 
by some very soft waters, oxide of lead being 
formed which is partially soluble. 

With free carbonic acid, however, the pipe 
becomes coated with carbonate of lead which is 
insoluble in water and protects the pipe from 
further action. In hard water the lead soon be- 
comes coated with sulphide of lime. 

Accordingly it is only under exceptional con- 
ditions that the employment of lead is harmful, 
but it should be prohibited for the lining of 
tanks or cisterns for domestic use, where the 
water may be stored for a long time. 

Lead and tin linings for iron pipe are now pro- 
curable and have the rigidity of the iron and the 
smoothness of bore desirable. 

In trench work this is desirable as it prevents 
trapping and avoids obstruction to the flow by 
being air bound. 



WELLS. 29 

WELLS. 



When a porous strata such as sandstone or 
chalk, which has the power of retaining water in 
its pores or fissures, is above an impervious 
strata, such as chw, the porous strata will 
be saturated and the water held up as in a basin, 
after rains, to a plane inclining toward the low- 
est lip, which is generally the outcrop of the 
impervious strata. 

If the porous strata is near the surface of the 
ground, the plane of saturation is generally at 
no great depth; and if a well is sunk to a point 
below this plane, water will collect in it and 
stand at the level of the plane. 

This constitutes a shallow well. 

Under these circumstances the level of the 
plane of saturation is very variable, being rapid- 
ly aftected by the rainfall. 

As the rainfall in its passage into and through 
the ground on account of its highly solvent 
nature, takes up and carries with it any impuri- 
ties, more particularly of an organic nature, 
which it meets with on the way, and as the dis- 
tance through which it has to pass before flow- 
ing into the well is usually very short, shallow 
wells are dangerous sources of water supply 
for domestic purposes. 

It is only in such cases as where the well is in 
an isolated position, and sufficiently removed 



30 WELLS. 

from any possible source of pollution, that its 
use in this connection should be permitted. 

As the water in shallow wells is usually of a 
soft nature, the suction pipe should not be com- 
posed of lead. 

Deep wells are those which are sunk through 
an impervious strata to a porous or water bear- 
ing strata beneath it; the water being held up 
in the latter by an impervious strata under- 
neath it again. 

The terms deep and shallow in connection 
w^ith wells do not therefore refer to the actual 
depth of the well, and a shallow well may in fact, 
be deeper than a deep well. 

Deep wells, if properly constructed, constitute 
excellent sources for domestic supply. 

The rainfall which feeds them is collected 
upon the exposed surfaces of the water bearing 
strata, which are usually situated at a distance 
from the site of the well, and becomes purified 
in its passage through the ground. 

On account of its prolonged contact with strata 
at some depth below the surface, deep well water 
usually contains a considerable amount of min- 
eral matter in solution, which it has taken up 
during its passage, this gives it a hard character. 

Deep wells have also the advantage of being 
slowly affected by the rainfall, and the level of 
the water in them is fairly constant. 

The level at which the water will stand in a 



WELLS. 31 

"deep well" depends upon the elevations of the 
collecting ground and the line of overflow. 

There is a continuous flow of water in satur- 
ated strata from the collecting area toward th e 
outlet which is usually the bed of a river, the 
shore of a lake, or the sea. 

The surface level of this moving body of water, 
which may be called its virtual slope, depends 
upon the resistance of the materials which com- 
pose the strata through which it flows. 

Should the point selected for sinking a deep 
well be situated beneath the virtual slope of the 
water in the saturated beds, then, when these 
beds are reached the water will rise to the top of 
the well and above it to the virtual slope at that 
point, thus constituting an artesian well. 

The name is derived from Artois, a province of 
France, where this form of well was first brought 
into general use. 

The artesian well is only a special condition 
of the deep well. 

As in wells of this description the water rises 
of its own accord, either so as to overflow, or to 
within a certain distance from the surface, it is 
only necessary to dig the well to a sufficient 
depth to allow a pump to be installed within 30 
feet of the lowest level to which the water rises 
and to afford sufficient storage capacity. 

Driven wells consist of iron tubes, in sections, 
which are driven into the o^round, the bottom 



32 • WELLS. 

section of which is perforated having a steel point 
to enable it to penetrate. 

When water is reached it can be easily deter- 
mined by a peculiar gurgling sound in the tube 
when struck by a mallet. An advantage pos- 
sessed by this form of well is that it can usually 
be withdrawn and driven again in a new situa- 
tion. 

Percolation of surface water between the lin- 
ing of the well and the ground through which it 
is driven is also prevented. 

It is generally known that driven wells cannot 
be successfully made in stony soil, or where the 
strata of clay is too thick to be penetrated. 

The tube well is economical and satisfactory 
when the ground is suitable and where the water 
stands, or by deeper sinking may be made to rise 
within 30 feet of the surface. 



t3t 



PUMPS. 33 

PUMPS. 



Machines for raising water have been known 
from very early ages, and the invention of the 
common pump is generally accredited to 
Ctesibius teacher of the celebrated Hero of 
Alexandria, about 224 B. C. 

Ctesibius did not understand the lift but the 
force pump. 

The pressure of the atmosphere was not esti- 
mated then. 

It was correctly determined by Torricelli, the 
Italian, to be 14.7 lbs. per square inch at sea 
level. The atmosphere will balance, at that level 
a column of water 33 feet 9 inches high. 

To raise the water in a pump the action is as 
follows : 

Suppose the suction tube to be filled with air 
at the atmospheric pressure, and the water to be 
at the same level inside the tube and in the well. 
Suppose the piston or plunger to be at the end 
of its downward stroke, the raising of the piston 
tends to produce a vacuum below it, and the 
atmospheric pressure, acting upon the external 
surface of the liquid, compels it to rise in the 
tube or pipe and follow the upward motion of the 
piston. 

The air contained in the suction tube will open 
the suction valve and rush into the pump barrel. 
The elastic force of this air being then dimin- 
ished, the atmospheric pressure will cause the 



34 PUMPS. 

water to rise in the tube to such a height, that 
the pressure due to this height, "vvill exactly 
counter-balance the pressure of the atmosphere. 

If the piston now descends, the suction valve 
closes, the water remains at the level to which it 
has been raised, and the air, being compressed 
in the barrel, opens the i^iston valve and escapes. 
At the next stroke of the piston, the water will 
rise still further, and a fresh portion of air will 
escape. 

If, then, the length of the suction is less than 
about 30 feet, the water will after a certain num- 
ber of strokes of the piston, be able to reach the 
suction valve and rise into the pump barrel. 

When this point has been reached the action 
changes. 

The piston in its downward stroke compresses 
the air, which escapes through it, but the water 
also passes through so that the piston when at 
the bottom of the pump barrel will have above it 
all the water that has previously risen into the 
barrel. 

If the piston be now raised,the water will follow 
it in its upward movement, and fill the pump 
barrel. 

In the downward stroke this water will pass up 
through the piston valve, and in the following 
upward stroke will be discharged at the spout. 

A fresh quantity of water will by this time 
have risen in the pump barrel, and the same 
operation will be repeated. 



PUMPS. 35 

From the time the water has entered the pump 
barrel, at each up\yarcl stroke of the piston a 
volume of water is discharged equal to the eon- 
tents of the pumj) barrel. In order that the 
water may be able to rise into the pump barrel, 
the suction valve must not be more than 33 feet 
above the level of the water in the well, other- 
wise the water would stop at a certain point in 
the tube, and could not be raised higher by any 
further motion of the piston. 

In order that a quantity of water may be re- 
moved equal to the volume of the pump barrel, 
it is necessary that the piston, when at the top of 
its stroke, should be not more than 33 feet above 
the water in the well. 

Practically, the pump barrel should be not 
more than about 25 feet above the surface of the 
water in the well, but the spout may be more 
than 33 feet above the barrel, as the water after 
rising above the piston is simply pushed up by 
the latter, an operation which is independent of 
atmospheric pressure. 

Pumps in which the spout is at a great height 
above the barrel are commonly called Lift Pumps, 
but they are not essentially different from the 
suction pump. Pumps being machines which 
serve to raise water either by suction, by pressure, 
or, by both efforts combined, are consequently 
divided into or classed as suction or lift pumps, 
force pumps, and suction and forcing pumps. 

The various parts entering into the construction 



36 PUMPS. 

of a pump are tlie barrel, the piston, tlie valves 
and the pipe. 

The barrel is a cylinder of metal in which is 
the piston operated by a brake or handle. 

The piston is a metal cylinder provided with 
a leather disc or valve and working with gentle 
friction the whole length of the barrel. 

The valves are discs of m'etal or leather which 
alternately close the apertures which connect 
the barrel with the pipe. 

The lower valve of a pump is fixed in the pipe 
below the barrel and rises or falls as the plunger 
or piston rises or falls. 

A force pump delivers the water under press- 
ure ejecting it forcibly or delivering it at an 
elevation. 

The single acting force pump, is that in which 
the lift and delivery is alternate. 

The double acting is that in which the passages 
are duplicated so that a lift and delivery are 
obtained by each motion of the plunger ; the 
pump has a distinct water way both above and 
below the piston so as to both draw and force 
water at each stroke, thus causing a continuous 
stream which is rendered more uniform by an 
air chamber. 

The object of the air chamber, is to provide a 
cushion of air to give elasticity or spring to the 
column of water being delivered. 

It also gives a uniform flow of water, the ex- 
panding air exerts its force on the water between 



PUMPS. 37 

the up and down stroke of the piston, assisting 
materially in the action. 

At elevations above the sea's level, water can 
only be lifted to a height in feet about equal to 
the number of inches at which the mercury in 
the barometer stands, one inch of mercury corre- 
sponding to about 13 inches of water. 

When trying to find a leak in a suction pipe, 
water will not be found on the outside surface of 
the pipe, as the air is trying to get in, rather than 
the water trying to get out of the pipe. 

Listen for a hissing sound and when located it 
will be usually found where the pipe has chafed 
against a rough surface or in a defective joint. 

When a jerky motion attends the working of 
the brake or handle, it usually indicates a leak 
unless the suction pipe is very long. 

When a partial stream is produced, that is, 
one not equal to the capacity of the pump barrel, 
the upper valve is partially worn and needs ad- 
justment. 

When the water leaves the pump, the lower 
valve needs repairing. 

As the level of water in wells is subject to 
changes, it is necessary to construct the rod and 
cylinder, at such a length that the sucker may 
always work within 26 or 28 feet of the water. 

By observing this precaution, water may be 
raised by pumps from wells of all depths ; for 
after it has once entered the barrel, it is then 
raised independently of the atmosphere, and to 



38 PUMPS. 

any height to which the cylinder is extended. 

When pump rods are required of great length, 
they should be made of pine. This wood does 
not warp and as it is rather lighter than water, 
its weight has not to be overcome, like iron rods, 
when raising the sucker. 

The more rapidly the handle of a pump is 
operated, the more water will be obtained up to 
a certain limit. 

A steady stroke is better because time must be 
given the water to flow into it. 

It can do so only at a certain rate, and it is im- 
portant to avoid anything that will check the 
easy flow of water, an elbow for instance. 

If necessary to change the course of a suction 
pipe, a long easy bend is by far the best as the 
friction in long pipes is considerable. 

The horizontal distance between the cylinder 
or working part of the pump and well is, in 
theory unlimited, but in practice it seldom ex- 
ceeds one or two hundred feet. 

In all cases where long pipes are used, their 
bore should be enlarged in proportion to their 
length, or the speed with which the piston is 
raised should be diminished; because time is re- 
quired to overcome the inertia and friction of 
long columns of water in pipes, thus a piston or 
sucker should never be raised faster than the 
pipe can furnish water to fill the vacuum formed 
by its ascent. 



PUMPS. 39 

In pump pipes having too small a bore, it often 
happens that the sucker is forcibly driven back 
when quickly raised, because the water had not 
time to rush through the pipe and fill the 
vacuum in the cylinder as rapidly as it was 
formed. 

Sometimes a valve called a foot valve, is 
placed on the bottom of a suction pipe in the 
water, its object being to simply help the lower 
valve of the pump and relieve it of a part of the 
strain. 

It holds the water up, especially if the lower 
valve in the pump leaks, owing to poor fittings, 
or if sediment gets under it, which is a very 
common trouble. 

When this occurs, the air, pressing on the water 
in the suction pipe, restores the equilibrium and 
the water falls back to the level of the water in 
the well, or the pump has run down. 

When wishing to raise water higher than the 
spout a lift and force pump is used. 

This has a close top, an additional valve and 
usually an air chamber. 

When this pump is worked, instead of the 
water flowing out of the spout of the pump, it is 
lifted or forced to whatever distance or height it 
is required. 

The power or strength to be applied has to be 
greater, and the different parts of the pump 
stronger, in order to stand the extra strain. 



40 THE HYDRAULIC KAM. 

as water is heavy and the 14.7 lbs atmospheric 
pressure gives no assistance. 

Once the water gets above the piston in the 
pump, it is a dead weight. 

There are many forms of pumps, and the mod- 
ifications are almost countless. 

The newer productions necessarily combine the 
essential principles of the atmospheric pump, 
the difference usually being in the nice adjustment 
and large delivery, together with the combina- 
tions to ensure ease of working. 

THE HYDRAULIC RAM. 



The discovery of the underlying principle of 
the ram and the merit of its application is prob- 
ably due to John Whitehurst, of Derby, England, 
who, in 1775, first called the attention of the 
public to this invention. 

In 1796 J. M. De Montgolfier, invented a 
machine acting on the same fundamental prin- 
ciple, but in some respects greatly improved. 

Whitehurst's ram was operated by the opening 
and closing of a waste valve, which was done by 
hand, while Montgolfier's accomplished the same 
results automatically and made the machine of 
practical use. 

The principle upon which all types of hydraulic 
rams operate is simple. 



THE HYDKAULIC KAM. 41 

A column of water is set in motion by opening 
a waste valve, and after a certain velocity is ac- 
quired, the waste valve is suddenly closed. 

The moving column, by this means, has ac- 
quired certain energy which it expends in forcing 
a portion of its volume through a check valve 
and to a higher head than its source. 

This operation being repeated at frequent in- 
tervals produces a flow of water in the desired 
direction and to the desired height, under proper 
conditions. 

The actual closing of the valve takes place very 
suddenly, and the momentum of the column of 
water, which was moving with increasing speed 
through the drive pipe, will very rapidly force 
some water through the air chamber valve into 
the air chamber. 

Immediately after this a rebound takes place, 
and for a short interval of time, the water flows 
back up the drive pipe and tends to form a 
vacuum under the air chamber valve, this opens 
the impetus valve and admits a little air which 
accumulates under the air chamber valve and is 
forced into the air chamber with the next shock. 

This air keeps the air chamber constantly 
charged, otherwise, the water, being under a 
greater pressure in the air chamber than it is in 
the reservoir, would soon absorb the air in the 
chamber and the ram would cease to work until 
the chamber was recharged with air. 



42 THE HYDRAULIC RAM. 

The rebound also takes the pressure oft: the 
under side of the impetus valve and causes it to 
drop and the operation is repeated. 

A steady flow of water is maintained through 
the delivery pipe by the pressure of the air in the 
chamber, this air also acts as a cushion when the 
impetus valve suddenly closes and prevents 
undue shock to the parts of the ram. 

This being automatic and the simplicity of the 
operation of the machine together with its effec- 
tiveness and desirability, renders it decidedly the 
most important and valuable apparatus yet devel- 
oped in "hydraulics" for forcing a portion of a 
running stream of water to any elevation propor- 
tionate to the fall obtained. 

It is applicable when no more than 18 inches 
fall can be had, yet the greater the fall applied, 
the more powerful the operation of the machine, 
and the higher the water may be conveyed. 

The relative proportion between the water 
raised and wasted, is dependent entirely upon the 
relative height of the spring or source of supply 
above the ram, and the elevation to which it is 
required to raise, has some bearing on the 
quantity of water raised and discharged by the 
ram, as the longer the pipe through which the 
water has to be forced by the machine, the 
greater the friction to be overcome, and the more 
the power consumed in the operation. 

It may be safely calculated that about one- 
seventh part of the water can be raised and de- 



THE HYDKAULIC KAM. 43 

livered at an elevation above the ram live times 
as high as the fall which is applied to the ram, 
or one-fourteenth part can be raised and dis- 
charged ten times as high as the fall, and in that 
proportion as the fall or rise is desired. 

Thus, if the ram be placed under a head or fall 
of five feet, of every seven gallons drawn from the 
spring, one may be raised 25 feet or half a gallon 
50 feet. 

When a sufficient quantity of water is raised 
with a given fall it is not advisable to increase 
said fall, as, in so doing, the force with which the 
ram works is increased, and the amount of labor 
which it has to perform greatly increased, the 
w^ear of the machine proportionately increased, 
and the durability of the ram lessened, so that 
economy in the expense of repairs would dictate 
that no greater fall should be applied for j)ropel- 
ling the ram than is sufficient to raise a requisite 
supply to the place of use. . 

In many cases the ram and feed pipe are too 
large for the supply of water at some seasons of 
the year, and the consequence is, that the water 
in the feed box falls until air enters the feed pipe 
when the ram will stop with the outlet valve 
closed. 

The water then rises in the feed box and over- 
flows, and it is found that the ram has stopped 
when there is plenty of water. 

In order to avoid this trouble a regulator or 



44 THE HYDRAULIC EAM. 

brass valve having a float attached, arranged to 
suddenly close when the float sinks, may be used. 

The regulator is put on the upper end of the 
feed pipe so that the face of the valve will be 
perpendicular. 

Then, when the water in the* feed box is 
lowered, the regulator closes and stops the ram 
until the water rises again. 

The depth to which the water may fall is reg- 
ulated by the position Of the float. 

In some cases, where galvanized iron feed pipes 
are used, the strokes of the ram, after a few years, 
become very weak, caused by the rust accumulat- 
ing on the inside. 

Sometimes the quantity of water a ram raises 
becomes less and less and finally stops, although 
the ram continues running. 

This is caused either by a hole in the rising 
pipe or a defect in the air chamber valve. 

The cost of power, attendance and mainten- 
ance being practically nothing and the first cost 
of the machine being very low, it is evident that 
no type of machinery can compete with the 
hydraulic ram, when the conditions are such 
that it can be used. 



WATER METEKS. 45 

WATER METERS. 



Statistics prove that the consumption of water^ 
in cities in the United States, has gradually in- 
creased within a few years to such an extent that 
provisions for supply cannot keep pace with the 
reckless waste that now characterizes the use of 
water. 

The selling of water by meter measurement is 
just and equitable and prevents waste. 

A water meter is a water engine, the motive 
power being the water which passes through it 
under pressure, requiring only enough power to 
overcome the friction of its moving parts and to 
drive the clock work of the index. 

The pointers on the dial are at the end of a 
train of mechanism and cannot move unless 
water is passing through the meter. 

In practice, a meter is seldom looked at. It 
must be absoluely reliable, doing its work with 
precision and without the necessity of such fre- 
quent care and examination as the general run 
of machines. It must be constructed of the best 
material, selected with reference to resisting the 
action of all kinds of water met with in every-day 
practice, and with few moving parts. Variations 
in the pressure should not affect its accuracy. 

Sudden opening or closing of faucets should 
not cause any error in registration as it must not 



46 WATER METEKS. 

obstruct the flow, cause serious loss of pressure, 
or become liable to damage by water hammer. 

Strainers are required in locations where the 
water contains floating matter or an excessive 
amount of grit, gravel, scale, etc. 

In setting a meter avoid the use of paint or red 
lead on pipe joints between water main and 
meter, as it is liable to work into meters and clog 
the working parts. The supply should be blown 
out before connecting, to eject lead filings, iron 
scales, gravel, etc. 

It is also desirable to place a check valve be- 
tween house fixtures and meter when hot Vv'ater 
is liable to siphon from boiler. 

Every consumer, who takes water by measure- 
ment, owes it to himself to know that he is pay- 
ing for no more water than he receives, and 
should learn to read the meter, being careful to 
observe that there is no waste of water. 

If any leak is found, it should be repaired, at 
once^ as any waste however small is registered, 
and the Water Department has no alternative 
,but to charge for the full amount, whether con- 
sumed or wasted. 

A meter will not register more water than 
passes through it, and if desirous of proving a 
meter it is easily done. 

Watch the hand on the dial registering the 
smallest number of cubic feet. If the hand 
moves at all, there is a leak, the extent being- 
shown by the movement of the hand. If the 



FILTEISS. 47 

hand remains stationary, draw into a receptacle, 
the capacity being known, an amount of water 
and it will be found on referring to the dial that 
too much water has not been registered. If the 
lowest circle registers one cubic foot for each 
7.48 gallons passed, the hand will make one com- 
plete revolution, and the hand of the next high- 
est circle will move one point. In this manner 
one can be satisfied of the accuracy of the meter 
bill at any time. 

Straight reading registers avoid errors being 
claimed and they interchange with the dial 
reoisters. 

FILTERS. 



There can be no dissent from the position that 
the household water supply should be rendered 
as pure as possible. 

Dr. Keeley says, "The water of the earth, as a 
rule, is not fit to drink."' 

"There is no other source of disease so prolific 
as water." 

The widespread prevalence of typhoid fever 
may be practically looked upon as a result of the 
l)ollution of the drinking water. 

While cases doubtless occur in which the dis- 
ease cannot be traced to the water supply, these 
constitute the variating minority. 

The importance of having it of pure quality 
is self evident. 



48 FILTERS. 

Pure water or water free from all sorts of iin- 
cleanliness is demanded today by the sanitary 
conscience of the public. 

Two alternatives are necessary, — either to pre- 
vent the entrance of impurities to the source of 
supply, or resort to some method of purifying the 
water. 

In most instances the changing of the source 
of supply is impracticable or too expensive and 
the only other resource is filtration or boiling 
the water. 

Water is no more necessary to life than pure 
water is to health. 

Because persons have drank questionable water 
and still live, is no evidence that they would not 
have lived better on pure water. 

It is reasonable, if badly polluted water causes 
severe and fatal disease, that slightly impure 
water may slowly undermine the health by being 
the cause of a host of ailments, for which the 
sufferer finds no apparent cause. 

Owing to its absorbent qualities, pure water is 
never found in nature. 

Formerly filtration simply meant straining out 
from water all impurities, thus changing a dirty 
or muddy water into a clean and limpid fluid. 

It did not contemplate the changing of organic 
compounds into inorganic compounds or the re- 
moval of minute organisms which are now recog- 
nized as the causes of specific diseases. 



FILTEKS. 40 

It is now known that water may be perfectly- 
clean and limpid and yet be extremely impure. 

It is also known that sewage water full of or- 
ganic matter can be rendered absolutely free by 
filtration. 

The experiment made by the Massachusetts 
State Board of Health, conducted at Lawrence, 
proved conclusively that water, no matter how 
polluted, can be rendered absolutely safe and 
pure by simply filtering the same through sand 
filters, provided certain conditions are observed 
regarding the construction of the filters, the rate 
of filtration, etc. 

In sand filtration two processes must be 
observed, one the straining out of the bacteria, 
and the other, the conversion of the organic com- 
pounds. 

These imply that the materials, of which the 
filter is composed, shall be sufiiciently fine to 
hold back all suspended matter, and that a sufli- 
cient supply of oxygen shall always be present to 
oxidize it. 

A filter may be a vessel, chamber, or reservoir 
through which water or other liquid is passed to 
arrest matter mechanically suspended therein. 

The idea does not necessarily include specific 
chemical action, though doubtless animal and 
vegetable charcoal have a faculty for absorbing 
gases and deleterious and effete matter, especially 
organic. 

The domestic filter, the one the individual 



50 FILTERS. 

liouseholder uses for preserving health to his 
family, range in eflficiency from the simple 
strainer of wire or sponge to the scientifically 
elaborated ones for the whole house service. 

The simpler and older patterns considered the 
matter only in the light of straining the larger 
deleterious matter suspended in the water so that 
one drawing water in the dark need not fear the 
absorbing of the animal life when using water 
drawn from an acqueduct supply. 

These filters are still on the market in the form 
of the sand, charcoal and quartz filling chamber, 
often seen attached to the cold water faucets. 

Now it is sought to destroy the bacteria held 
in suspension or the organic beings always found 
in water to a greater or less extent, according to 
the source of sux)ply and its water shed. 

We cleanse the water and also supply oxygen 
after the limpid fluid has passed certain stages 
in the filter and the pleasant taste to the palate 
is retained. 

Experimenting has brought the domestic filter 
to such a state of excellence in its results that no 
one need be without one, who cares for the 
purity of the water he drinks. 

Pressure filters generally speaking, are the 
most popular and satisfactory, even though the 
bacteria and suspended matter may be forced 
into the texture of the filtrant and never com- 
pletely dislodged by any method of washing as 
yet applied. 



FILTERS. 51 

Those eniployin,^ solid porous material are 
usually considered capable of removing all sus- 
pended matter, and rendering muddy water per- 
fectly clear, although the clearness of the water 
is no indication of its purity. 

The impurities which occur in ordinary water 
are of two kinds. 

Mechanical, or those held in suspension by the 
water, and Physical, or those held in solution. 

The Mechanical impurities are mud, leaves, 
vegetation, fish, frog spawn, insects, etc. 

The Physical impurities are solutions of min- 
eral decaying animal matter, albuminous slimes, 
etc. 

The leaching from privy vaults and drains are 
the most harmful poison that usually get into 
the water supply. 

The mechanical impurities are far less danger- 
ous, being easily seen and quite easy to remove. 

ISTearly all mechanical impurities can be re- 
m^oved by filtration through sand or other suit- 
able material, but the danger lies mainly in the 
matter held in solution and which is consequently 
invisible. 

^lineral. poisons can be neutralized by the use 
of chemicals, and sometimes by heating and 
settling, or by distillation. 

The organic poisons from sewage, etc., can 
only be entirely removed by distillation, but a 
careful repeated filtration through sand and bone 
charcoal will, in most cases, improve the water 



52 FILTERS. 

sufficiently to make it suitable for drinking and 
cooking purposes. 

Bone charcoal is often employed as a fitting 
medium because it exerts a chemical action upon 
the organic matter in the water, and renders it 
inert and harmless. 

The charcoal, however, gradually becomes sat- 
urated and clogged with refuse, and loses its 
value as a purifying agent, therefore, it must 
be renewed at intervals. 

Water that has grown stale by standing may 
be greatly improved by the process called aeration 
and made suitable for drinking purposes, pro- 
vided it has not been otherwise polluted. 

The object to be attained is to expose the 
water to the action of air to the greatest practi- 
cable extent. 

In the process of aeration the water absorbs a 
considerable quantity of air and is greatly im- 
proved in appearance and taste. 

The process of aeration is adapted only to the 
purpose of freshening water and rendering it 
more palatable, and is not serviceable for actual 
purification. 

In all apparatus designed to aerate water, care 
must be taken to exclude all dust from the air, 
because dust is very liable to carry with it many 
kinds of germs which give rise to putrefaction 
and disease. 

In all varieties of filters the velocity of the 
water passing through them should be low 



FILTERS. 53 

enough to permit the first sediments to deposit 
themselves upon the surface of the beds of filter- 
ing material. 

Otherwise, in treating muddy water, it will 
retain a muddy color. 

Filtering material becomes gradually clogged 
by the accumulation of refuse matter upon the 
surface of the bed, the flow of water is checked 
and the usefulness of the apparatus is greatly 
impaired. 

This can be remedied, however, by reversing 
the direction of the flow of water at suitable in- 
tervals. 

Thus, the accumulation can be washed away 
and run to waste and the filter can be operated 
almost continuously, 

A filter which cannot be thus reversed should 
not be employed if it can be avoided, because 
the care and trouble which will be required to 
keep it in good working order will be so great 
as to lead to almost certain neglect. 

A filter which is neglected is liable to become 
foul, and thus give rise to the very danger that 
it is intended to prevent. 

Filters should be kept full of water as alternate 
wetting and drying of putrescible matter greatly 
hastens putrefaction and increases the growth of 
disease germs. 

A filter which is thus operated is liable to 
become a source of poison instead of a protection 
against it. 



54 BOILERS AND CIRCULATION. 

A filter to purify all the water is as essential 
as lieat and light. 

It saves labor and repairs on boilers, it saves 
the cleaning of tanks, preserves plumbing, does 
away with the grit and sand in water and makes 
cleanliness and comfort. 

It gives tenants pure drinking water, and its 
tendency is to make them permanent occupants. 

Whether from motives of economy or desire to 
be healthy and clean, there is scarcely any known 
condition under which water is used which 
would not be improved by filtration. 

BOILERS AND CIRCULATION. 



A boiler, as understood in plumbing, is a res- 
ervoir for storing hot water. 

The heating is done by means of a water front 
or hollow casting, usually placed in the side of 
the fire box of a range or heater. 

Attaching this water front with the boiler by 
means of pipes, filling the boiler with water and 
starting the fire allows the heat from the fire to 
warm the water in the * 'front," and the water, 
being made lighter or expanded by heat, rises 
through properly graded pipes to the boiler. 

The inlet or cold water connection, of the water 
front, should be at the lowest edge of the 
casting, and arranged to allow all water and sed- 
iment to be easily removed. 



BOII.EKS AND CIKCULATION. 55 

The outlet or hot water pipe, should be at the 
highest point of the front to avoid an air chamber 
and allow the heated water an uninterrupted flow 
to the boiler. 

The water when heated is expanded or made 
less dense, and the outlet or flow pipe, should be 
larger than the feed or cold pipe to allow for this 
expansion. 

After heating, the water being less dense than 
that already in the boiler, will rise to the highest 
point possible and allow the cold that has flowed 
into the front, to replace the water just heated, 
thus forming a circulation. 

If no water is drawn, the water continues to 
circulate and radiates heat from the sides of the 
boiler, thus cooling near the outer edges and 
creating a secondary circulation. 

To understand how water can become heated 
and delivered hot at the faucets of the various 
fixtures, in a building, it may be well to know the 
principles of water circulation by the action of 
gravity. 

In hot water circulation, as in ventilation, the 
gravity of the water or air must vary in order 
to change position. 

When a body of water is increased in tempera- 
ture, it expands and thus occupies more space; 
when decreased in temperature, it contracts and 
occupies less space. 

By the action of gravity, the power which 
moves the water and causes it to circulate, is 



56 B0ILEK8 AND CIRCULATION. 

meant, that power whicli is usually expressed by 
the term weight. 

The smaller the space a given weight of water 
occupies, the greater the density, and the greater 
the space, the less dense will the water become. 

If the density of the water be uniform, through 
its whole body there would be no circulation as 
it has equal weight and one part cannot displace 
another. 

Thus in a boiler attached to a range, the 
coldest particles will fall to the bottom and the 
hottest rise to the top of the boiler. 

The rising of the hot and the falling of the 
cooler water is called circulation. 

The reason that hot water flows from the boiliBr 
is simply because the water pressure in the feed 
pipe forces the hot water through the pipes 
when a hot water faucet is opened, and the 
quantity thus drawn off is replaced by cold water 
from the source of supply. 

No matter how much water is drawn it is re- 
placed and it is impossible to empty the boiler 
in this way as it is fed from the top through a 
tube extending nearly to the bottom and drawn 
out through the upper coupling provided to con- 
nect with fixtures for hot supply. It will simply 
fill the boiler with cold water. 

The application of the principle that warm 
water rises and cooled water falls, is what a prac- 
tical man should know. 



BOILEK^ AND CIKCULATIOX. 57 

Water is like air, heat it and it rises. Deprive 
it of heat and it flows back to the starting point. 

The principle of circulation never varies. All 
horizontal circulation is forced and unnatural. 

Hot water rises, cold water descends in vertical 
lines of direction. 

It is the natural way and is in exact accord 
with the law of gravitation. 

Every movement horizontally creates friction 
and resistance, and checks the speed with which 
the water should leave the boiler. 

The matter of friction must be carefully 
attended to and all sharp bends and contractions 
in the pipe must be avoided. 

Abrupt enlargements of the pipes or depress- 
ions create friction and impede the flow. 

The higher the flow pipe from a water back 
can rise, before it enters the boiler, the more 
rapid the circulation will be and the water that 
can be warmed in a given time, the water front 
being equal in every other respect. 

The side coupling of the ordinary boiler is too 
low, if one desires to receive the best results in a 
given time with a given size of water front. 

The rapidity of circulation depends on the 
difference in weight of the two columns. The 
longer these columns are, the greater the differ- 
ence will be. 

Heating water extracts the air and this air will 
accumulate in high points of circulation pipes, 
unless provision is made to release it. 



58 BOILERS AND CIRCULATION. 

.When confined, it often completely checks the 
flow of water under light pressures. 

When first opening a hot water faucet the 
water is seldom hot, owing to the cooling process 
of radiation, w^hen flowing through the i^ipes. 

To ensure an immediate supply of warm or hot 
water, the hot water pipe is extended to the 
highest or most distant fixture from the boiler, 
and then returned, without branches, to the 
bottom of the boiler by means of a tube extend- 
ing from a third coupling on the top of boiler, to 
near the bottom, in the same manner that the 
cold supply is connected, or to the cold feed i^ipe 
to the water front, or to the side coui>ling of 
boilers usually used for the hot water connection 
from water front. 

When this last method is used, the hot flow 
pipe from water front must connect to the hot 
w^ater distributing pipe near the top of boiler, 
unless a special tube is provided in the boiler 
higher or nearer the top. 

The cold feed pipe should at its lowest point, 
be provided with a sediment cock to allow the 
boiler to be drained and for repairs. 

Pressure boilers are usually made of galvanized 
iron and guaranteed to resist a pressure of 150 
to 200 lbs. 

As these boilers contain, at times, extremely 
hot water, and the galvanizing is often very 
poorly done, this coating of zinc, as a protection 
to the iron, is of short duration. 



I30ILEKS AND CIKCULATION. 5^ 

This alternate cooling and heating of the 
boiler contents, causes expansion and contraction^ 
thus hastening the peeling of the coating, espec- 
ially on its interior surface, and soon the boiler 
begins filling with rust and scale, that frequently 
enters the water front and partially if not wholly 
closes the lower water passage. 

When this period arives, the water has to enter 
the water front through the upper coupling or 
flow pipe and return through the same j)ipe. 

This causes resistance and produces very dis- 
agreeable sounds, often straining the stove con- 
nection and eventually breaking the pipe. 

Frequently a boiler is set so that the lower 
coupling is lower than the water front. 

If a hot water faucet is opened at or below the 
level of the boiler and the water being shut off, 
siphonage is liable to take place through the 
main shut off waste tube. 

When the water is again turned on, if a fire had 
remained in the range, the sudden entrance of 
cold water into the front, is liable to break it. 

Water passing through a galvanized iron boiler 
will, after a time, become more or less affected 
by rust. 

As these boilers are usually used under high, 
pressures, the tension is often severe and uneven 
throughout the system and an earlier wearing 
out of the materials on the water supply is the 
result. 



60 BOILERS AXD CIIICULATIOX. 

Altliougli the first cost is less, in tlie long run 
the pressure system is not economical. 

Copper boilers are usually used when supplied 
from a tank or cistern and are also made for 
heavy and vacuum pressures. 

These boilers are usually tinned on the inside. 

The tubes for the supply and circulation are 
also made of copper with a small hole drilled 
near the upper end to admit air to prevent si- 
phonage. 

Galvanized iron boilers also have a tube, often 
of plain iron, with hole drilled, but this hole 
being small, rust will soon close it and siphonage 
is not i^re vented. 

To ensure the boiler being constantly filled and 
also maintain an even pressure, a tank should be 
installed in a building above the highest fixture 
and provided with an adequate supply. 

The pressure on the boiler and pipes is thus 
more uniform, not excessive, and the supply 
pipes may be of lighter w^eight, if of lead, thus 
lessening the cost. 

When a fixture is a long distance from the 
boiler, the water cools and often an undesirable 
wait is necessary, unless a circulation pipe is in- 
stalled to keep the water moving. 

When a circulation pipe is connected to the 
boiler, the expansion pipe is usually and prop- 
erly taken from its highest point and extended 
above the highest level of the water in the tank. 

This pipe is intended to provide air, to prevent 



BOII.EKS A.ND CIKCULATION. 61 

siphonage or collapse, and also allow overheated 
water to escape, thus preventing undue pressure 
on the boiler or pipes. 

The hot water pipe from the range to boiler 
should always rise, for if a sag or trap is formed, 
circulation is checked, the pipe is strained and 
disagreeable thumping sounds are heard. 

These pipes should be of brass or copper, 
owing to their rigidity and freedom from rust, 
etc. 

Sounds coming from defective water backs and 
improper pipe connections between the range 
and boiler differ greatly. 

What might be called the rumbling noise is 
due to air being forced through water and often 
there is an air space in the w^ater back above the 
upper connection which acts as an air chamber 
pocket in which air accumulates while the water 
is cold, and when the fire is started in the range 
the confined air expands and forces part of the 
water from the water back, so that the expanded 
air can escape to the boiler. 

If the cause is an air pocket in tlie water front 
the rumbling noise will be heard shortly after 
the fire is started more than at any other time, 
because then the greatest difterence of degrees 
of heat exist in the water front. 

If the circulation is defective by improper 
bends or stoppages in tlie pipes, the noise would 
be a cracking, snapping, tliumping noise due to 



62 BOILEKS AND CIRCULATION. 

a vacuum being rapidly formed in the pipes from 
{?team. 

This kind of noise would continue longer than 
from confined air and much more annoying. 

Usually a range boiler is set vertically but con- 
ditions often require them to be set horizontally. 
It is advisable that such a boiler should be espec- 
ially tapped to obtain the best results. 

The cold water should enter at the top and a 
tube should extend nearly to the bottom more 
than half the length of the boiler from where the 
hot water pipe leaves it. 

The lower circulation or cold water pipe to 
the front should be taken froni the bottom to 
allow the boiler to be emptied or drained in case 
of repairs. 

The hot water service to fixtures, leaves the 
top to avoid air traps and sluggish circulation. 

It is necessary to so tap the boiler that the 
same conditions may exist in the horizontal posi- 
tion as in the vertical, having no air traps, dead 
water or dipped pipes. " , 



.5e 



I>OUBLE BOILERS. 63 

DOUBLE BOILERS. 



If the water pressure is too light to rise to the 
upper tloor of a building, a pump is usually used 
to fill a storage tank that supplies water for the 
upper fixtures and the boiler. 

To supply these upper fixtures with hot water, 
a double boiler may be used. 

Double boilers are usually constructed one 
within the other, either horizontal or yertical, 
the outer one being supplied from the street 
pressure and connected to the water back in the 
usual manner. 

The inner boiler is heated by the hot water in 
the outer boiler by radiation. 

The inner boiler is supplied from the storage 
tank but should also haye a connection proyided. 
through a check yalye, with the street supply, if 
the tank supply should fail. If this precaution 
is not obseryed the inner boiler might become 
broken by the outer boiler's excessiye pressure. 

The inner boiler should haye its own circula- 
tion and expansion pipe independent of the 
outer one. 

The inner boiler should haye its own sediment 
yalye so arranged that both boilers must be 
emptied at the same time, otherwise the outer 
one might remain full and crush the inner shell. 

This system is seldom used unless special con- 
ditions fayor its adoption. 



64 TANKS. 

TANKS. 



A boiler or attic tank is intended to hold water 
for tlie use of the household and to always main- 
tain an even and constant supply for the range 
boiler. 

Such a tank should hold at the rate of 25 
gallons for each person per day. 

The house tank should be lined with tinned 
copper, exposed to the water, and weigh 16 oz. 
to the square foot. 

This tinning should be put on the copper with 
resin, as the coating is more permanent. 

Tinning copper with an acid solution leaves the 
surface brighter and clearer when new, but the 
solution is very apt to be too strong, often eating 
away the tin or lead in the solder mixture, leav- 
ing the copper surface exposed. 

When such exposure occurs, the action of the 
water on the bare copper, soon causes a green 
coating or verdigris to form, and as this is pois- 
onous, the water is affected. 

A tank should not be so large as to allow the 
body of water to become stagnant. 

The needs of a household should be ascertained 
and the tank made of the size adapted to such 
needs, and a complete change of the contents of 
the tank should be made each day. 

An overflow should be provided adequate for 
the escape of a large flow, or the diameter should 



TANKS. ' 65 

be at least twice the diameter of the inlet and 
determined by the pressure at the tank level. 

A tank may be supplied either by a pump, 
street pressure or hydraulic ram. 

If the street pressure is sufficient to raise the 
water to the tank level, an automatic ball cock 
should be attached. 

This valve is useful when the supply is constant 
and the demand intermittent. 

The action of a ball cock is as follows : 

A ball of copper or hollow spherical cylinder 
of glass attached to a rod working a piston in the 
shell of a faucet, floats on the surface of the 
water, and if the water is drawm lower, the float 
falls with the water and opens the fixture that is 
connected with a valve controlling the flow of 
water from the street pressure. 

When the float drops, the piston opens the 
valve, allowing the tank to refill and as the float 
rises, it gradually closes the water way and only 
the amount used is allowed to enter the tank. 

When this supply is not available, a ram with 
its outlet over the tank might be used. 

When this method is used, an overflow is most 
imperative, as the ram is constantly forcing water 
through the open end above the tank. 

When supplied with a force pump, a strong 
durable one should be selected and the suction 
and rising pipe or main, should be of the same 
internal diameter. 

If the rising main is of less diameter, less 



66 TAI^KS. 

water will be delivered and the strain on the 
pump greater, causing the working parts to need 
repairs much more frequently. 

With a pump some means of ascertaining 
when the tank is full is necessary, as an overflow 
would not notify the operator, unless a pipe is 
brought from the tank to the pump. 

A small pipe is usually installed, called the 
tell-tale, and discharges over the sink or in full 
view of the operator. 

A tank should have a stop cock provided near 
it to control the supply to the fixtures. 

An air pipe should extend over the tank and 
attach below the stop cock on the feed pipe. 

A tank should be regularly cleaned and a 
standing overflow should be provided to assist in 
the matter. 

An expansion pipe from the range boiler should 
extend above and over the water in the tank, to 
allow for undue heating of the water in the boiler, 
thus acting as a safety valve, and also prevent- 
ing the collapse of the boiler, by admitting air 
when boiler is emptied for any reason. 

Special tanks for supplying water closets and 
urinals are desirable, and the siphon pattern is 
used to a great extent when an automatic flush 
is required. 

This ensures the regular and copious washing 
of the surfaces fouled and avoids undesirable 
odors. 

In the use of a cistern, the water pipes may be 



ELECTROLYSIS. 67 

lighter, and an even pressure maintained, thus 
lengthening the use of the material and making 
the work in the average of years, more economi- 
cal, than with a pressure system. 

ELECTROLYSIS. 



The act or process of chemical decomposition, 
by the action of electricity. 

Electrolysis is the decomposition by the elec- 
tric current. 

When the water mains, or the house service 
branches, buried in the earth, are near the return 
wires of the trolley system now in operation in 
most cities, there is an escape of some of the 
electric current into the earth, which is more or 
less moist and is absorbed or charged owing to 
the fact that water is a good conductor of elec- 
tricity. 

Efforts are made to neutralize this waste of 
current by means of return wires to the power 
station. 

It is found that a very feeble current, con- 
tinued for a long time, will affect metals buried 
in the moist earth, due to this moisture and the 
fact that most metals are good conductors. 

Thus iron and lead pipes are sooner or later de- 
composed, and when sufficiently weakened the 
internal bursting force of the water, fractures the 
pipe and repairs are needed. 



68 ELECTROLYSIS. 

It is seldom, that the plumber, in large cities 
or where underground electric currents are main- 
tained, is called upon to make any street repairs, 
but in some places the plumber is allowed to 
make street repairs. 

In buildings, repairs are sometimes caused by 
electrolysis where battery or telephone wires are 
attached to water pipes to ground them. Often 
a plumber, when grasping a damp pipe, will feel 
a tingling running through his fingers and arm 
and wonder what caused it. Probably the 
ground under a live trolley line has become sur- 
charged with electricity and a water pipe passing 
through this ground into a building acts as the 
conductor and caused the sensation felt by the 
plumber. 

With a slight current constantly working and 
the ground in the street being charged from the 
trolley current, a galvanic action takes place on 
the surface of the metal pipes and a loosening or 
dissolving of its component parts is commenced. 

Electrolysis cannot take place unless the con- 
ductor is a good one, such as iron, copper, lead, 
brass, etc. 

The same electric current decomposes equiva- 
lent quantities of all the bodies through which 
it travels, water, earth or metals ; and the quan- 
tity of a body decomposed in a given time is jjro- 
portional to the strength of the current. 

While corrosion to a water pipe may be due to 
the soil in which it is buried, electrolysis proba- 



^lETALS AND ALLOYS. 69 

bly affects metal pipes more rapidly when buried 
in wet soil, than in gravelly or dry soil. 

Corrosion is noticed at points where the cur- 
rent may be said to have entered, due to the 
moisture, as less resistance is offered at some 
points than others. 

Owing to the fact that such conditions exist, 
remedies should be sought and applied to pre- 
vent as comj^letely as possible, the effects of the 
waste electric current. Larger wires should be 
used for ground current, water mains and service 
branches should be covered with cement or other 
mineral substance, not a good conductor and re- 
duce to the minimum the effect of electrolysis. 

METALS AND ALLOYS. 



The term metal was applied originally to all 
bodies possessing certain well defined physical 
characters, especially their lustre and high 
specific gravity. 

With few exceptions, metals possess consider- 
able hardness and cohesion, and require a high 
degree of heat to liquify them. 

Mercury is the only metal which at the ordi- 
nary temperature of the atmosphere, exists in the 
liquid state. All others are solid. 

A pure metal is a simple body or element, 
which cannot be divided into any number of sub- 
stances different from its original nature. 



70 METALS A^B ALLOYS. " 

There are compounds of metals which can be 
divided into their component parts. 

Ores are metallic compounds which have to be 
divided, to separate the pure metal from other 
matters. 

Thus Lead, Tin, Zinc and Iron are produced 
from ores, while Copper is found in a metallic 
condition. 

The metals constitute about five-sixths of the 
elementary bodies known to exist. They are dis- 
tinguished by their power for conducting heat 
and electricity, as well as their metallic luster. 

The metals used in the arts and of peculiar im- 
portance to a plumber, are: — Antimony, Brass, 
Bismuth, Coi3per, Iron, Lead, Tin and Zinc. 

The metals. Antimony, Bismuth, Lead, Tin and 
Zinc are white or inclined to white with blue or 
yellow tinges. 

Under the influence of heat. Tin and Lead are 
fusible below redness. 

Copper, Antimony, Zinc, Bismuth and Lead are 
readily fusible in ordinary furnaces, while Iron 
can only be fused with great difficulty. 

Malleability, or the property of permanently 
extending in all directions without rupture, by 
pressure or hammering, depends a great deal on 
its tenacity, coupled with softness. 

Tenacity, or the property of resisting fracture 
from a tensile or stretching force, is found to 
vary with the purity, the condition of the metal 
due to its mode of treatment or preparation, and 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 71 

with the temperature, the tenacity usually di- 
minishing with an increase in the temperature; 
the tensile strength is generally decreased after 
heating to, or above redness, and then allowing 
it to cool without further treatment, due to the 
production of a crystalline structure in the metal. 

Ductility, or the property of being permanently 
elongated by a tensile force, or of being drawn 
into wire, is possessed by all malleable metals to 
a greater or less degree, though the most malle- 
able are not necessarily the most ductile, the 
ductility of a metal being more powerfully in- 
fluenced by its tenacity than is its malleability^ 

Fusibility, or the property of becoming liquid 
when sufficiently heated, plays an important part 
in the use of the various metals. 

Metals become less tenacious when heated, so 
as to stretch before breaking when a pulling 
power is exerted, thus plumbers heat lead pipes 
when wishing to bend them. 

Oxygen has a chemical affinity for nearly all 
metals. 

Exposed to moisture, or submerged in water, 
their surfaces will oxidize ; that is, enter into 
combinations with oxygen, and become what is 
called tarnished. Tin will resist this action the 
best. Oxygen attacks Lead very slowly. After 
the surface has once become covered with oxide, 
the action is retarded, so that a lead pipe will 
last a number of years, provided the oxidized 
surface is not removed or disturbed. 



72 METALS AND ALLOYS. 

Those metals which oxidize by exposure to the 
air will more readily combine with oxygen when 
exposed to heat. 

Lead heated to redness will be changed to dross 
or oxide of lead. 

A chemical action takes place between some of 
the metals known as galvanic or voltaic action. 
Moisture is necessary to cause this effect. 

Lead and iron form galvanic action, and the 
iron disappears near the lead. On galvanized 
iron, the zinc will be eaten away. 

Solder on lead ?«nd iron pipe will be eaten away 
from the same cause. 

Metals do not unite indifferently with each 
other but have certain affinities; thus, silver 
which will hardly unite with iron, combines 
readily w^ith gold, copper or lead. 

When two or more metals are combined by 
fusion it is called an alloy, as copper and zinc 
form the alloy called brass. 

Many alloys are composed of definite chemical 
proportions of their component metals, while in 
others the metals unite in any proportion. 

All alloys are opaque, have a metallic luster, 
are more or less ductile, elastic and m'alleable 
and are good conductors of heat and electricity. 

The melting point of alloys is usually below 
that of either of the simple metals composing 
them. Alloys in general are more easily oxidized 
than their component metals. 

An alloy of tin and lead unites with oxygen so 



METALS AND ALLOYS. 73 

readily as to take fire and burn when red hot. 

Lead containing Antimony is notably hard, and 
there is little if any, commercial lead absolutely 
free from this impurity. 

The effect of Bismuth when alloyed with other 
metal is usually to form fusible bodies, which 
expand on solidifying after fusion. 

An alloy of three parts lead with two of 
bismuth, is said to have about ten times the ten- 
acity of lead alone. 

Bismuth solder consists of equal parts of lead 
and bismuth alloyed with two parts of tin. 

Tin and zinc alloy well together on fusion, 
the zinc increases the hardness, but lessens the 
ductility of the alloy. 

Tin and lead alloy well together in all propor- 
tions, the metal not separating on cooling after 
fusion. 

Plumbers' solder is an alloy of this class. The 
hardness and tenacity of this alloy is at its max- 
imum when the metals are present in the jDropor- 
tions of three of tin to one of lead. 

Lead and tin are malleable, flexible, ductile 
and inelastic while cold, but when their temper- 
atures much exceed about half way toward their 
melting heats, they are exceedingly brittle and 
tender, owing to their reduced cohesion. 



74* SOLDEK. 

SOLDER. 



Solder is a metal or alloy used to unite adjacent 
metallic edges or surfaces. 

It must be rather more fusible than the metal 
or metals to be united, and with this object the 
components and their relative amounts are varied 
to suit the character of the work. 

As the melting point of lead is 617° to 626" 
according to the purity of the lead, solder must 
melt at a lower temperature. 

The solder depends very much upon the nature 
and quality of both tin and lead. 

Xo definite rule can be made for the melting 
points of plumbers' solder, although the follow- 
ing table is said to be nearly correct. 

3 parts lead to 1 of tin, Coarse melts at 480° F. 
60 " '' " 40 " '' Plumbers " " 440° " 
1 " u cc ;^ u u Yine " '' 370° '' 

1 " " '^1% " '' Tin Pipe " " 330° " 

It often happens that solder will become 
spoiled by getting zinc or other ingredients into 
it, which causes the solder to harden or crystal- 
lize contrary to its nature. 

This is shown by the solder quickly setting or 
working badly, while if disturbed when cooling 
it is a kind of gray blue. 

This is often caused by dipping brass or copper 
work into the pot for tinning, and also when 
soldering brass or copper to lead. 



SOLDER. 75 

If too hot the zinc leaves the copper, and the 
tin takes it up, because the tin and zinc readily 
mix. A small portion of zinc will also cause the 
lead and tin to separate. 

If there is zinc in solder, heat it to about 900° 
or nearly red hot, throw in a small quantity of 
sulphur, (brimstone) which melts at 226°F. This 
high temperature is needed to melt the zinc, 
which melts at 773°F., and being lighter than 
lead or tin, has a tendency to float with the help 
of sulphur. 

The sulphur mixes with the zinc and brings up 
all foreign substances to the surface. 

Skim the solder well and after the heat is re- 
duced to about the melting point of solder, add 
resin or tallow, to free the sulphur, and the sol- 
der should be clean. 

Lead and tin can be separated by one rising 
above the other, so always stir before taking out 
a ladleful for use. 

Never stir solder when red hot or burnt. 

If allowed to burn, the nutriment or binding 
qualities are gone, and the pliable property 
which makes the solder work like butter, de- 
ducts from the ductility always needed in good 
working solder. 

Some solder will work well for several heats 
and then become coarse ; its appearance will be 
black and dull, become very porous and unrelia- 
ble without more tin. 

This is due to the fact that poor tin has been 



76 SOLDER. 

employed or some foreign substance, such as an- 
timony, has been mixed with it. It will form 
teats or drops on the bottom of the joint and it 
will be difficult to make the joint. When this 
occurs, clean the solder with sulphur and resin 
and add tin to replace the deficiency caused by 
cleaning. 

TThen solder hangs to the cloth it is too fine 
and needs a little lead, and when it sets too 
quickly, or too coarse add tin. 

Never leave sulphur in ladle or solder pot as it 
cannot be cleaned without considerable trouble. 

The fluxes generally employed for soldering, 
are, for iron, borax or sal-ammoniac; for zinc, 
brass or copper, sal-ammoniac or zinc chloride ; 
for lead or tin pipe, resin or tallow. 

A liquid for use in fine solder is made by drop- 
ping small pieces of zinc into two ounces of mu- 
riatic acid, until bubbles cease to rise, then di- 
lute by adding water. 

In tinning metals, the object is to prepare the 
surfaces that they may readily unite with the 
melted solder. 

The tinning operation is best performed at a 
moderate heat. When overheated, the coating 
of solder, or the tinning as it is called, is reduced 
to a yellow powder and is destroyed. The tin- 
ning must be restored before it can be used. 

Resin is recommended as a flux for tinning 
copper bits which are to be used for soldering 
lead and for tinning all brass and copper work 



SOLDEK. 77 

upon which soft solder joints are to be wijDed. 

Articles composed of brass or copper such as 
faucets, nipples, etc., should be tinned, filing to 
remove the coating or oxides leaving the metal 
surface clean, then coating with a fiux. Solder 
is then applied with a bit entirely covering the 
filed surface. 

It is bad practice to dip brass articles into a pot 
of molten solder which is to be used for wiping 
purposes, because some of the zinc, of which 
the brass is partly composed, will melt out 
and alloy with the solder thus spoiling it. Arti- 
cles composed wholly of copper, provided they 
are perfectly clean and free from filings, will do 
no injury to the solder. 

Iron articles may be tinned by thoroughly 
cleaning the surfaces and treating them with 
sal-ammoniac before applying the solder. 

Great care must be taken, when filing brass or 
other metals preparatory to tinning them, that 
the filings do not fall on the bench or such places 
that solder falling from wiped joints will pick 
'^them up. As a precaution, filing should not be 
done near the place where the wiping is to be 
done. 

Solder flows better at high temperatures, pro- 
vided the temperature is not so high as to oxi- 
dize it. 

Solder will flow into a joint until it is chilled, 
therefore, it flows farthest when it possesses a 



78 SOLDER. 

large excess of heat above that which is neces- 
sary to maintain it in the fluid condition. 

The heat necessary for making wiped joints is 
supplied wholly by the molten solder, thus, it 
is essential that the solder should possess a 
considerable surplus of heat. The temperature 
is limited, however, by the tendency of the solder 
to oxidize. 

It is of great importance that all wiped joints 
should be sound and reliable. 

Patient practice until one can make a perfect 
joint is necessary. No wiped joint is perfect un- 
less strong in body, perfectly fused, clean at the 
edges, true in form and free from solder inside. 

In all joints the solder should be well mixed, 
and so fuse with the pipe that the metals will be 
perfectly united. 



t5t ^ 



PLUMBERS JOINTS. 70 

PLUMBERS' JOINTS. 



The strength of a joint not only depends upon 
the quantity, but the quality of the solder. 

Too long manipulation spoils the solder and 
weakens the lead, the first joint made, if the 
metals are thoroughly fused, will be the most re- 
liable even if the shape is not perfect. 

In making wiped joints, the metals to be joined 
should be heated to a temperature nearly equal 
to the fusing point of the solder. 

Care should be taken that they are not heated 
beyond this temperature. 

Fit ends of pipe tightly to prevent solder enter- 
ing the interior, thoroughly clean all surfaces to 
to be wiped and immediately cover this cleaned 
surface, with grease or oily matter, to prevent 
tarnishing. 

In shaving, do not dig out the lead, as it is 
weakened and the joint cracks at the edges, 
much sooner than it otherwise would. 

Wiped joints, properly made, are the strongest 
known to the trade, and generally recognized in 
the plumbing industry as one method of proving 
a plumbers' status. 



80 VENTILATION. 

VENTILATION. 



Nature makes a wonderful provision for creat- 
ing a constant circulation of the air, or ventila- 
tion. 

The sun's rays pass through the air v^ithout 
heating it, but they heat the surface of the earth 
at the very bottom of the ocean of air. 

This in turn heats the surrounding air by each 
individual atom coming in contact with each 
other, expanding them, making them lighter and 
causing them to rise, thus allowing the colder 
and heavier particles to rush in and replace them. 

With this great universal moving cause it 
becomes almost impossible for the air to be abso- 
lutely at rest. 

In ventilation as generally applied, the object 
is to remove vitiated air and supply a better 
quality of fresh air. 

Air, and all other fluids, move only when the 
pressure which impels themi is greater than the 
pressure which opposes their movement. 

The circulation of air is directly due to the 
dift'erence of temperature in the various parts of 
a building or flue. 

Whenever the weight of a column of air in a 
chimney or soil pipe is less than the normal at- 
mosphere, the internal air cannot balance that of 
the external air. 

The result is to drive the internal air upward 



VENTILATION. 81 

and the colder or heavier air will flow in and 
replace it. 

Good ventilation is necessary for the mainten- 
ance of good health. 

Plumbing ventilation is that part of the general 
drainage system whose duty it is to carry oft: to 
the outer atmosphere any gases of putrefaction 
formed or confined within the system, to prevent 
back pressure or vacuum on the trap seals or 
the entrance of sewer air into the building. 

Many examinations of the air found in sewers 
has established the fact that no distinct gas that 
might be termed "sewer gas" exists. 

The gases found in sewers vary with the 
matter confined or fermenting. 

The most noticeable and dangerous gas found 
in sewers and elsewhere is Sulphuretted Hydro- 
gen. This is a product of the putrefaction of 
organic substance containing sulphur, and is 
one of the causes of the sickening smell of drains, 
and is easily distinguished by its disgusting odor. 
Its gaseous state is not permanent. 

This gas is very combustible, burning with a 
blue flame like that of sulphur. 

This gas causes fainting when inhaled in large 
quantities and depresses the vital energies when 
breathed for some time. 

Another gas found in sewers, is gas of Am- 
monia or Spirits of Hartshorn, as it is sometimes 
called. It attacks the mucous membrane, the 



82 VENTILATION. 

inside of the nostrils and throat will smart, and 
tears will run from the eyes. 

Ammonia gas is generally present in a badly 
ventilated stable or urinal, and its presence is 
very painful. 

Carbonic Acid gas escapes from the decay and 
fermentation of matters in drains and sewers. 

This gas will not support life and is not as 
readily detected as either of those previously 
named. 

In places highly charged with this gas, a 
candle will not burn. 

Although a drainage system is usually open to 
the atmosphere, it may not always follow that 
the normal pressure of the atmosphere is main- 
tained, as when fluids are in motion or flooding 
of a sewer causes back resistance. 

When the pressure in the various parts of the 
system will vary, some being greater and others 
less. 

Any part of the system subject to a pressure 
greater than the atmosphere, is called a plenum, 
and any less a vacuum. 

In house ventilation it is quite as necessary to 
secure thorough distribution of fresh air, as to 
provide an outlet and inlet and foul air should 
be well mixed with that which is pure. 

There are three general results that changes 
in atmospheric pressure produces in plumbing 
ventilation; the increase of the draft of a chim- 



VENTILATION. 83 

ney or flue, back draft or reversal of currents aud 
tlie increase of evaporation. 

In plumbing ventilation there are two methods' 
of producing circulation of the air called the 
natural and the forced draft system. 

The natural method, most commonly emj^loyed-, 
is caused by the difference of temperature 
between inlet and outlet and the currents move 
at very moderate velocities. 

The forced draft method, being niade by me- 
chanical means, any direction or desired velocity 
can be obtained. 

Plumbing has two distinct needs for air circu- 
lation, the local or house system, and the drain 
or sewer system. 

Heat is the great moving j^ower oi air, and in 
the local system, the heat from fire-place 'or 
heater is utilized. 

Usually a chimney is used for the duct and tts 
construction is of great importance. 

It should be smooth, preferably of vitrified 
pipe, circular, and the same diameter throiigh- 
out its entire length. 

A separate flue made of vitrified pipe should 
be used for seat or local ventilation, as its inle- 
rior is smooth and frictional resistance is less 
than when laid with brick and square flues. 

A chimney plays an important part in ventila- 
tion, even if no fire be burning, as the air in an 
inhabited building is usually warmer than out"- 



84 VENTILATION. 

side air and it will generally be found that an 
upward current is flowing. 

During cold weather the di:fference in tempera- 
ture between the inner and outer air is usually 
enough to create a satisfactory draft in a flue in 
the desired direction, but during mild weather 
the difference in temperature diminishes, and in 
summer time the draft is often reversed. 

A chimney thus, often becomes inoperative as 
the weather becomes warmer and to maintain a 
circulation in the desired direction, other means 
must be used to move the air. 

Heating the flue by artificial means will pro- 
duce the desired results or by using fans or 
blowers. 

The common and general methods employed 
are the vacuum and plenum. 

Circulation is produced by fans, or by heating 
the air in vertical flues through which the dis- 
charge of vitiated air takes place. 

In the vacuum method, the motive force is 
applied at the outlet ; air is drawn from the room 
and the pressure being less in the room or flue, 
than the outer air, the fresh or purer air flows in 
to replace -the foul or exhausted inner air. 

- The plenum method, forces the air into the 
room expelling the interior or foul air and replen- 
ishing with outer or purer air. 

This method avoids drawing mouldy orimj^ure 
air from cellars or drains. 

- In local venting of urinals and water closets, 



VENTILATION. 85 

the object is to induce an inward air current 
across tlie fixture, near the body of water con- 
tained therein, thus dispelling the foul air about 
the fixture and also freeing the room from foul 
accumulations. 

It is of prime importance to arrange a well 
drawing outlet flue in a bath room or water 
closet apartment which would tead to create a 
slight vacuum and cause a constant change of air. 

Either the vacuum or plenum method will pro- 
duce the desired result and conditions should 
govern the choice of methods. . 

When the conditions are well understood, and ; 
the foregoing principles practically applied, 
effective and satisfactory results should beob-- 
tained. 

With drainage ventilation the object is to pre- 
vent the foul sewer air from entering the build-- 
ing through traps by preventing back pressure, 
and deoderizing the drain contents by allowing 
fresh air to flow through the whole system. 

Opinions differ regarding a standard system of 
drainage ventilation, although three are more or- 
less advocated. 

In one, the sewer is disconnected from the. 
building by inserting a trap on the main drain, 
with an inlet pipe near it opening to the outer air 
near the ground level, thus allowing the heavier 
or cooler air to enter and crowd out the lighter, 
intending to produce a continuous inward and 



So VENTILATIOX. 

upward air current and deoderizing the wliole 
pipe system. 

Another, provides the intercepting trap, but 
takes its fresh air from near the eaves, or Jow 
points near roof or belovr the outlet of the soil 
pipe extension and vrell away from windows, sky- 
lights or ventilating shafts. 

The soil pipe extension in the system should 
be located at some point considerably higher than 
the inlet opening. 

Yariations of temperature, between the rising 
;Stack on the inside of building and the inlet pipe 
..on the outside, govern the practical operation of 
-this method, working more satisfactorily if the 
inlet pipe be Jocated in as cool a situation as 
practicable, in order that the air may be heavier 
:..and assist the flow downward in the desired 
.direction. 

Another, or natural method, omits the trap on 
the house drain, allowing the current of warm 
air to rise from the sewer and discharge above 
rthe building. 

In this method, each building connected with 

•the sewer assists in its ventilation and as the trap 

-as absent, gases do not accumulate or concentrate 

but are diffused into the atmosphere above the 

breathing zone. 

With this method, care should be exercised 
-that proper positions be obtained for the outlet 
vextensions above roofs. 

While it is a matter of little consequence 



VENTILATION. 87 

whether the air in a drainage system flows up or 
down, it is of great importance that the pipe in- 
terior should be well aired or deoderized to pre- 
vent formation of gases, corrosion of the pipe 
material, or pressure on trap seals. 

Foul drain air will not always flow in the same 
direction as the density of the air in the system 
compared with that of the outer atmosphere, 
may differ to such an extent as to cause a rever- 
sal of currents, or, water,flowing down the verti- 
cal stacks or through the drains, may force it 
into the sewer or through the fresh air inlet. 

Frequently, a pipe being partially filled with 
matter, in passing a branch, creates a vacuum 
sufiicient to break the water seal of a fixture 
trap or cause a back pressure of the trap seal, 
thus allowing sewer air to enter a building. 

To prevent either vacuum or back pressure, an 
auxiliary pipe is attached to the branch pipe just 
in front of the trap outlet or sewer side of seal, 
to prevent air being forced through the trap seal 
in either direction. 

With this arrangement, there is no compression 
of air, but a natural and simple circulation 
throughout the whole system. 

Each line of air pipe should extend as straight 
as possible up to and through roof or connect 
with short branches to a main vertical stack used 
for air only. 

This main air line should have its internal 
diameter of such an area, that a sudden demand 



88 VENTILATION. 

for air from each separate branch simultaneously, 
would be promptly supplied. 

Each back air pipe, should be at least one size 
larger than the waste pipe it serves, especially if 
long or containing many angles. 

Back air pipes, when necessarily placed in a 
horizontal position, should be so arranged that 
the drip of condensation will flow to the trap or 
some low point of escape as steam and vapors 
condense rapidly in a waste or soil pipe, eventu- 
ally closing a trapped air pipe, thus obviating the 
duty it was intended to perform. 

In connecting a back air branch to a main line, 
place the branch high enough to avoid the pos- 
sibility of the air pipe acting as an overflow or 
waste pipe for the fixture. 

Unless some such precaution is taken the waste 
in becoming choked would make the air pipe 
serve as the waste and eventually clog it. 

When back air or relief pipes can be connected 
at or near the base of the soil pipe lines, it is 
advisable as scale or water falling through it will 
be more readily disposed of and often avoid stop- 
page of the air pipe. 

When practicable, ventilation pipes or soil and 
waste pipe extension, should run beside a heated 
flue, the result being to rarify the drain air, 
causing it to rise and assist naturally in ventila- 
ting the whole system. 



DKAINAGE. 89 

DRAINAGE. 



The general arrangement of pipes placed in a 
building for conveying waste matter from the 
plumbing fixtures to a convenient point of dis- 
charge, may be termed the drainage system. 

This part of the general system is installed es- 
pecially for the removal of waste by the water 
carriage method. 

The term "drainage" properly includes the 
removal of subsoil and surface water as well as 
waste, and most plumbers arrange piping for 
both waste and clean water. 

When both house and surface drainage are 
united in one common outlet to the sewer it is 
called the "combined" system, and when divided 
the " single" or separate system. 

The system of collecting and disposing of waste 
matter and waters of communities, could prop- 
erly be termed sewerage. 

Sewers are the receivers of house drains. 

Experience has demonstrated the desirable 
material to be used in a drainage system, both 
inside and outside of a building. 

There are three grades of drain pipe quite com- 
monly used, — Cement, Slip Glazed and Salt 
Glazed Clay Pipe. 

Cement pipe in common use is seldom found 
of good quality and is not sufficiently strong or 
durable to be reliable. 



90 DKAINAGE, 

"Slip glazed" pipe is made of what is known 
as "fire" clay, such as fire brick, which retains 
its porosity even when subjected to intense heat, 
as it is glazed with another kind of clay known 
as "slip" which, when being subjected to heat 
melts, creating a very thin glazing, but being a 
foreign substance to the body of the pipe is lia- 
ble to wear or scale off. 

"Salt glazed" clay or vitrified pipe, is made of 
a clay, which, when subjected to an intense 
heat, becomes vitreous or glass like, and is 
glazed by the vapor of salt, which is thrown into 
the fire, creating a vapor which unites chemi- 
cally with the clay and forms a glazing which 
will not scale or wear off and is not affected by 
acids, steam or gases. It unites with the clay in 
such a manner as to become a part of the body 
of the pipe. 

Salt glazed pipe can only be made from clay 
that will vitrify, that is, when subjected to an 
intense heat, will come to a hard, compact body, 
not porous. 

The material of outside drain pipes should be 
vitrified, because if porous, the impure contents 
of the drain would be absorbed, would have less 
strength to resist pressure, and would be affected 
by frost. 

Inside drains should be made of cast iron, of 
extra heavy weight, and if treated with a coating 
of asphalt or tar, corrosion is retarded, although 



DRAINAGE. 91 

defects in casting, such as sand holes or flaws are 
covered temporally. 

It is claimed that cast iron pipe for drainage 
work under-ground is unsafe, but if covered with 
tar most soils do not aft'ect it, while greasy 
matter on the interior prevents corrosion, and it 
is now generally conceded that cast iron is per- 
fectly safe for under-ground work and much to 
be preferred, in made land, to vitrified, on ac- 
count of fewer joints, its rigidity and freedom 
from fracture. 

Cast iron pipe depends upon leaded joints for 
connections, but if steam or excessively hot water 
is allowed to pass through them constantly! the 
lead is loosened separating the joints and caus- 
ing leaks. 

To avoid this, the joint should be m^ade of iron 
borings, sulphur and sal-ammoniac, well mixed 

and caulked in the same manner as the leaded 

joint. 

The diameter of house drains should be as 

small as consistent with the needs of a building, 

as the cleansing or scouring force is greater and 

the chance for obstruction is less, as the friction 

and velocity is greater. 

A velocity of three feet per second is desirable 

to effectually clear all drains of refuse, and a fall 

of one-fourth inch per foot is needed to produciB 

that velocity. 

All drains should have open ends to avoid the 

formation of vapors. 



92 DKAIXAGE. 

This may be avoided by extending pipes to the 
highest part of the building, through the roof 
and placed to be well exposed to air currents. 

This pipe should be enlarged at least one size, 
just below the roof, in cold climates, to prevent 
hoar frost accumulating and closing the air pas- 
sage in cold weather. 

Soil pipe extensions allow air to enter the 
drains, prevents accumulation of gases as well as 
pressure on trap seals. 

These pipes extending from the sewer through 
a building, allow unwholesome odors to be dif- 
fused into the atmosphere thus becoming harm- 
less. 

When installing soil and waste pipes, concen- 
trate as much as possible and avoid horizontal 
branches of great length. 

Vertical stacks should be run as direct as pos- 
sible, avoiding offsets as the flow of air or waste 
is retarded greatly. 

Soil, waste or vent pipes should be placed to be 
easily accessible, as frequent inspection is desira- 
ble and in case of repairs also. 

All soil, waste and air pipes must be air and 
water tight and the pipes must be of sound ma- 
terial. 

All joints in soil waste, back vent and all con- 
necting pipes, including lead bends, ferrules and 
traps should be tested with air or water before 
any plumbing work is used and a final one when 
fixtures are in position. 



DRAINAGE. 93 

Soil pipe extensions, should be as far as prac- 
ticable from windows, skylights, vent shafts or 
chimney flues, to avoid foul oders entering a 
building. All soil pipes should be well supi^orted 
to prevent sagging or separation of joints. 

Connections between lead and iron pipes should 
be made by means of a brass ferrule, leaded into 
hub of pipe, the lead pipe soldered to the brass 
by a wiped joint. 

Lead and iron do not maintain a durable or 
safe connection when soldered, on account of 
galvanic action between the metals. 

All changes in direction, in soil or waste pipes, 
should be with long sweep bends or Y branches, 
and when placed horizontally, cleanouts, should 
be inserted at each angle or change in- direction. 

Leader or rain water ccmduCtorSj when inside 
a building, should be of cast iron and when the 
leader opens near a window or ventilating shaft 
it must be suitably trapped, placed to avoid freez- 
ing and also accessible for cleaning or inspection. 

Tank overflows and safe wastes should not con- 
nect directly with the drain, but should be placed 
where its discharge would indicate the existence 
of an overflow or leak. ^'^ 
. Refrigerator wastes should not connect directly 
with a drain or waste pipe but should discharge 
into a receptacle suitably trapped and supplied 
with water. 

All drain, soil and waste pipes should be kept 
free from deposit and special flushing apparatus 



94 SOIL AND VENT OUTLETS, 

should be provided if the house fixtures do not 
properly cleanse them. 

With good material, suitable ventilation, and 
thorough workmanship, a safe and sanitary sys- 
tem of drainage would naturally result, jDromot- 
ing health and prolonging life in so far as 
hygienic plumbing could preserve it. 

SOIL AND VENT OUTLETS. 



The soil pipe extensions or vent outlets above 
the roof should be placed, if possible, above the 
highest parts of a roof and as far away from all 
openings through which drain air might enter, 
as conditions will allow. 

If adjoining buildings should be higher than 
the building ventilated, foul air might enter the 
higher one from the soil pipe outlets. 

To avoid this, the vent pipes should be ex- 
tended above the roof of the highest building. 

The distance from windows considered safe at 
which vent outlets may be placed, is usually 
specified in plumbing regulations from 15 to 25 
feet. 

As such outlets necessarily extend some dis- 
tance above roofs and are exposed to a greater 
or less degree to the outer air, it frequently 
happens in cold climates, in extreme cold 
weather, that these pipes become filled with frost 



SOIL AXI> VENT OUTLETS. 95 



and ice, thus checking the circulation of air. 

As it is of great importance to keep these out- 
lets open to prevent back pressure, some means 
should be provided to avoid this condition, and 
maintain circulation. 

As the cause of this frost is the precipitation 
of vapors or moisture when coming in contact 
with the outer or colder air, a jacket should be 
placed around the exposed pipe, to prevent the 
vapors condensing or until they have actually 
left the pipe. 

If a jacket is an objection, the pipe may be en- 
larged just below the roof, providing a larger 
opening, thus prolonging and frequently prevent- 
ing the stoppage of this extension. 

With an outer covering, the warm air in the 
pipe will maintain the temperature at such a 
degree that a clear opening will be ensured dur- 
ing the most severe weather. 

Ice formations are not liable to close vent pipe 
extensions, when the building is supplied with 
cold water only. Air absorption is less when a 
good draft exists, therefore less ice formation. 



^ ^ 



96 SUBSOIL DRAINAGE. 

SUBSOIL DRAINAGE. 



Frequently buildings are located where the 
land is damp, swampy or on a side hill where 
water from the surface gathers around the foun- 
dation walls and percolates into the cellars, often 
forming pools. This causes the cellar air to be 
damp. 

This cellar air will pass through the floors, 
walls and partitions, bringing the unpleasant 
odors into upper living rooms. 

If poor plumbing fixtures are placed in the 
cellar, poorly ventilated or connected, or a de- 
fective drain is installed, these odors mingle with 
this damp air also. 

Malarial affections are often the result of damp 
and unventilated cellars. 

To avoid damp cellars, or the entrance of water, 
the proper time to guard against it is, when the 
foundation is being laid, as a suitable drain can 
then be more easily laid below the level of the 
foundation or cellar. Drain pipes with unce- 
mented joints, or horse shoe tiles, may be laid 
outside and below the level of the walls. 

In the trench with these pipes place loose 
gravel, cinders or broken stones, to prevent 
any stoppage of the drain, to filter the water, and 
allow the water to collect in and around the 
drain, instead of reaching the walls of the build- 
ing or percolating into the cellar. 



SUBSOIL DRAINAGE. 97 

Similar pipes could be arranged within the 
building if springs existed or it became necessary 
to dispose of surplus water. 

The outlets for these subsoil drains are easily 
arranged when the sewer or house drain allows a 
gravity fall, as a back water valve and water 
sealed trap may be branched from the house 
drain, with a leader or rain water pipe connected, 
to assist in maintaining a sufficient water seal, if 
the subsoil water flow was not constant. 

The back w^ater valve would prevent the en- 
trance of sewage, into subsoil drain, if a stoppage 
occurred in the main drain. 

Particular care should be taken to guard 
against this danger, as the foul matters would 
contaminate the ground under the building. 

Often the cellar floor level is below the drain 
outlet and the subsoil water cannot be carried » 
away by gravity. 

To avoid the use of pumps, an automatic 
machine, called a cellar drainer, may be placed 
in a collecting pit and operated from the water 
supply, the pressure of which should be not less 
than 25 lbs per square inch to be effective. 

The supply being connected, the action of the 
machine, is similar to that of a ball cock in a 
cistern and operates to open the supply when the 
pit has filled to the adjustment of the machine. 

A strainer surrounds the outlet to jDrevent 
chokage and a fine stream of water is ejected 
through the outflow pipe with such force, com- 



98 TRAPS AND SIPHONAGE. 

bined with the atmospheric pressure, as to lift 
the contents of the pit, to the desired level, if 
that level will not exceed 8 or 10 feet above the 
machine, and to a convenient point of discharge. 

When the pit is nearly empty or the body of 
water removed from the under surface of the 
hollow cylinder, the float decends and checks the 
flow until the filling of the pit renews the opera- 
tion. 

Some suitable and effective means should be 
employed to prevent the accumulation of moist- 
ure within a building. 

TRAPS AND SIPHONAGE, 



A siphon is understood to be a bent tube hav- 
ing one end longer than the other: used for trans- 
fering liquids from higher to lower levels over an 
intervening higher point than the vessel desired 
to empty. 

The principle upon which a siphon operates is 
due to the pulling action of the fluid in the long 
leg reducing the atmospheric pressure at its 
crown and the weight of air on the surface of 
the water, when the short leg is immersed, 
presses the water over the crown in the effort to 
maintain an equilibrium. 

The pressure at the crown of all siphons must 
be less than that of the atmosphere, therefore the 
tube must be air tight at the crown. 



TKAPS AND SIPHOXAGE. 9P 

A very small opening will admit air enough to 
break the action of a siphon. 

As the pressure of the atmosphere is the force 
which operates a siphon, it follows that the 
height to which a siphon will lift water cannot 
exceed 33 feet and 9 inches as the atmosphere 
balances a water column at this height. 

A trap made the above depth cannot be 
siphoned for this reason. 

The object of a trap, in plumbing, is to prevent 
the entrance of foul air into a building, and is 
a depression, bend or chamber, for the retention 
of water. 

This water obstructs the passage of air under 
certain conditions. 

The trap is the only protection against the 
entrance of sewer air, and the method of main- 
taining a seal is the most important part of a 
drainage system. 

The trap seal is endangered hy evaporation, 
back pressure, and siphonage. 

Evaporation takes place only from the surface 
of fluids, more rapidly in warm than in cold sit- 
uations and much more rapidly in a dry, than in 
a damp atmosphere. 

Evaporation consiste'in the formation of vapor, 
by the air which comes in contact with its sur- 
face and is more rapid in a current of air, than it 
is when the air is still. 

By experience, it is found that evaporation is 
more rapid* inptke open air, than in the house, 



100 TRAPS AND SIPHOXAGE. 

and, that conditions being equal, is most speed- 
ily effected during a strong wind. 

Thus trap evaporation, is hastened by a special 
vent or air pipe attached to the crown. 

Back pressure, or absorption, is caused by a 
pressure of air upon the sewer side of the seal of 
a trap, greater than the atmospheric pressure 
upon it on the house side. 

Several varieties of gas are soluble in water, 
but in different proportions. 

Water is said to be saturated when it has in 
solution all the gas it can hold. 

If water is saturated with gas, and the pressure 
is reduced, or the temperature raised, the capac- 
ity of the water to hold the gas is reduced and 
some will be liberated. 

If air in a waste pipe be compressed against 
the trap seal, its pressure will increase and the 
water line depressed. 

This is termed back pressure or plenum, and if 
it becomes great enough to lower the level of the 
water to a point below the tongue of the trajj, 
sewer air will be forced through the trap, into 
the building. 

To prevent back pressure, a relief or circula- 
tion pipe should be attached to a waste pipe near 
the trap, on the sewer side of its seal, to convey 
any foul air or gases out of the building and 
maintain free circulation of air. 

Siphonage is caused by the removal of the 
atmospheric pressure from the sewer side of the 



TRAPS AND SIPHOXAGE. 101 

trap seal by the pulling action of a falling 
column of water, either through the trap or a 
pipe branch, to which it is connected. The cause 
is simply unequal pressure. The atmospheric 
pressure must be the same on each side of the 
water seal. 

By introducing a sufficient volumn of air into 
the top of any siphon, in this case the trap, the 
siphonic action can be destroyed. 

By introducing air, equilibrium will be main- 
tained, and the water in the trap, or short leg of 
the siphon will be level and the long leg, or 
waste pipe, will be replaced by air. 

Before siphonage can take place the outlet end 
must be lower than the level of the water in the 
trap. 

A trap when discharging draws more or less 
air with the water and carries with it either in 
solid form or spray, a certain amount of the 
water which forms the seal. 

When the atmospheric pressure on the house 
side of the trap seal is greatest, it presses its way 
through the water seal to fill the vacuum, often 
taking with it enough water to leave the trap 
without seal. 

An air pipe, of sufficient area, prevents the dis- 
turbance of the seal from back pressure and also 
prevents siphonage as well as allowing a free 
circulation of air throughout the waste pipe 
svstem. 



102 TKAPS AND SIPHONAGE. 

The crown of a siphon is the usual place to 
attach an air pipe to break siphonic action. 

This method is usually followed to prevent trap 
siphonage, but the trap is not only used to pre- 
vent sewer air from entering a building, but is 
an outlet foi waste water from the fixture, to 
which it is attached. 

This waste is not always clean, and grease, lint, 
etc., gradually attach and remain on the interior 
walls of the pipe or trap. 

In the overflow the current of water is directed 
to the crown of the trap and eventually the air 
inlet will become filled with this coating and 
when this period arrives the air pipe on the 
crown is useless. 

This gives a false sense of security and is dan- 
gerous because siphonage is usually the result. 

If connected on the vertical pipe a little below 
the crown, filth will not collect to choke the back 
air pipe, evaporation is prolonged as no air cur- 
rent passes immediately over the water seal, no 
oscillation by air currents to induce a lowering 
of the seal, and each discharge of the fixture will 
tend to wash away any accumulation that might 
have been left at any previous discharge. 

Traps should be of such size as to entirely dis- 
place their contents each time a fixture is 
discharged and a depth of seal that will not 
check the velocity of discharge, but will resist 
evaporation and back pressure to a great extent. 



TKAPS AND SIPHON AGE. 103 

The depth of seal, resists back pressure more 
than a large body with a shallow seal. 

The seal is the distance between the bottom of 
the tongue and the overflow point. 

This is the depth which prevents the gases on 
one side of the trap seal from having communi- 
cation with those on the other side. 

A three inch seal, is considered from expe- 
rience, likely to produce the best results, as too 
deep a seal obstructs the velocity of flow, and 
thus retain waste matter in the trap chamber. 

All traps should have a cleaning opening and 
should have its cover placed below the water 
seal. 

A ground joint cleanout should be inserted in 
each back air pipe near its junction with the 
trap to allow an opportunity for cleaning both 
vent and waste in event of chokage. 

It is advisable to use a trap that will effectu- 
ally scour itself by its own action in the passage 
of water through it and to place the vent pipe In 
such a position that at no time can filthy fluids 
enter or obstruct it to nullify the object for which 
it is intended. 

With a relief pipe properly connected, back 
pressure and siphonage are avoided and the ven- 
tilation of the drainage system is much improved. 



104 GREASE TRAPS. 

GREASE TRAPS. 



The frequent stoppage of drain pipes, which 
receive the waste water from hotel kitchens, eat- 
ing houses, restaurants, or where much dish 
washing is done, causing annoyance and expense, 
requires that some method should be employed 
to prevent this fouling and chokage. 

Hot water thrown into a sink usually carries 
with it grease in a melted state, which solidifies 
upon coming in contact with the cold pipe and 
adheres to it. 

To prevent the grease accumulating to a dan- 
gerous extent, a quantity of lye, which is a solu- 
tion of caustic soda or potash, may be used, as 
the lye changes the grease into soluble soap, 
which dissolves and flows away with the water. 

An intercepter or grease trap is considered 
preferable if properly constructed as the grease 
is solidified before entering the drain, thus pre- 
venting the formation of gases. 

Water and grease enter the trap with other 
matters discharged, where solid matters whose 
specific gravity is greater than that of water, will 
settle in the bottom of the trap, while solids 
having less specific gravity, such as grease, will 
float, thus allowing the grease to rise and accu- 
mulate, while the water will discharge into the 
drain. 

In order to accomplish the above results, some 



GREASE TKAP8. 105 

different arrangement must be used than simply- 
preventing the admission of sewer air. 

A partition is placed in the trap to prevent too 
rapid a current, as grease would flow out if no 
impediment was interposed. 

A relief pipe should be connected near the trap 
to prevent accumulations of foul odors and main- 
tain an equal air pressure on both sides of the 
trap seal. 

Grease accumulations can be removed through 
the trap screw provided on the top of the trap 
and another trap screw should be provided, on 
the outlet pipe, for cleaning purposes. 

To allow the grease to rise to the top, the trap 
body should be large, so that the flow will be 
sluggish and the partition checks the velocity, 
thus allowing the grease to separate and accumu- 
late on the surface of the water. 

The inlet and outlet should be at or near the 
bottom. 

The object is to provide a trap large enough to 
receive a considerable discharge of greasy matter 
and hold it until the grease has risen to the sur- 
face, where it is held until removal, leaving the 
water below comparatively free from grease. 



106 SINKS. 

SINKS. 



A sink is a tray into which waste water is 
poured to be disposed of by means of a pipe con- 
nected to a drain. 

Sinks are used in kitchens for washing cooking 
utensils, etc., in pantries for washing silver and 
table ware. 

Slop sinks are used in hotels, office buildings, 
and in residences where large families have con- 
siderable refuse water from chambers or sleeping 
rooms. 

A kitchen sink is usually made of cast iron, 
although steel, soapstone, slate and crockery are 
used extensively. 

In regular work the sink is usually set up 28 or 
30 inches from the floor. 

A sink should have a strainer firmly fastened 
and not easily removed except by some compe- 
tent person who can properly replace same. 

It is intended to prevent the entrance of im- 
proper matter to the waste pipe and avoid 
chokage. 

The trap for a sink should be ventilated in such 
a manner that refuse or grease will not obstruct 
or in any way close the air passage. 

This vent pipe should rise vertically, from 
waste connection, to a height above the point 
where any back flow could cause a stoppage, 
usually 33 inches above the flow. 



SINKS. 107 

If possible use a 45° angle outlet on the trap 
branched to a perpendicular pipe, the lower end 
serving as a waste outlet and the upper end be- 
ing extended as the continuation for vent pipe. 

With this angle branch, the solid matter will 
have a continuous downward course, thus caus- 
ing a better cleansing force and the pipe will 
remain clean longer. 

For hotels and cooking establishments, a 
"grease trap" should be provided, as a large 
amount of greasy matter is carelessly thrown 
down a sink and causes continual stoppages in 
the waste pipe if one is not provided. 

The cold supply for a sink should be taken 
directly from the source of supply, usually, in 
towns or cities, from the street main, and an 
ample supply should be arranged for through 
pipes of large caliber especially when the press- 
ure is low, as this fixture is in constant use an 
ample and quick supj)ly is apparent. 

The hot supply, should be through an inde- 
pendent pipe from the reservoir and the faucets 
should be set from 9 to 11 inches above the 
bottom of sink. 

All kitchen sinks should be set up open, with 
brackets or legs, without enclosing the space 
underneath, as filth is usually found to collect 
and with irregular and careless cleaning allows 
the spaces to become in a short time a breeding 
place for vermin. 



108 SINKS. 

With the fixture open, if anything is spilled 
about the sink or floor it is quickly seen and 
remedied. 

All kitchen sinks should be provided with 
with some form of drainer for allowing the moist- 
ure from dishes to drain into the sink. 

These drainers should be made of slate as it is 
non-absorbent and will clean readily. 

As an iron sink has a flange with a raised edge 
the fitting of a drainer should be carefully and 
tightly made, to prevent the water getting 
between the edges. 

A back or spatter protecter of the same mate- 
rial as the drainer, should be placed back of the 
sink to prevent water reaching the wood work 
and hastening its decay. 

With an open sink, a non-absorbent drainer and 
back piece, the objectionable odor so often 
noticed about such fixtures will be greatly less- 
ened if not wholly obviated. 

Steel sinks are pressed into shape by powerful 
machinery, are light, durable, cleanly and diffi- 
cult to break. 

This sink has a waste coupling connection with 
separate bolt connection for strainer, a great im- 
provement over the iron sink, and is very conven- 
ient for the plumber when making repairs. 
These sinks come galvanized, painted and enam- 
eled. 

Soapstone is smooth and quite hard, although 



SINKS. 109 

not as hard as slate. It is considered non-absorb- 
ent, in some grades. 

This sink can be made with high back or end 
thus making one joint only, which prevents 
liquid matter getting against the wood work. 
With soapstone drainer also properly attached 
the outfit is quite desirable. 

Slate sinks are made in much the same manner 
as soapstone, the material being much harder 
and non- absorbent is generally chosen by good 
judges for sanitary work. 

The waste connection for both soapstone and 
slate is made of brass, with triangular frame and 
locknut, so arranged that a tight and reliable 
joint is made. This brass bell is furnished with 
strainer and solder coupling, making a durable, 
neat and satisfactory connection with the waste 
pipe. 

Crockery or vitreous ware sinks are baked 
without joints and arranged to be fitted with legs 
and usually conceded to be the most sanitary 
material that can be used. With this material 
and plated connections a very neat appearance is 
obtained. 

A pantry or butler's sink is intended for table 
ware only and is usually made of copper, well 
tinned, usually of oval outline, and shallow. 

These sinks may be made of slate or stoneware 
and provided with marble or slate drainers, thus 
preventing the swelling and warping of wood 



110 SINKS. 

work so often seen where wooden drainers are 
used. 

When sinks are fitted with wood work exposed 
to alternate wetting and drying, the wood rapidly 
decays, and also absorbs and retains any filthy 
matter that may have been on the dishes used. 

Objection is often made that a marble or slate 
drainer is a cause for the breaking of glassware. 
To overcome this objection a rubber mat may be 
placed on the drainer, which is easily cleaned. 

Pantry sinks are provided with a plug or 
stopper to retain the desired depth of water nec- 
essary to submerge the articles being cleansed. 

A grease trap should be provided as well as a 
suitable overflow. This overflow may enter the 
waste before entering the trap, but preferably a 
separate connection to the trap should be made. 
If the waste was choked the overflow might avoid 
damage if separately connected. 

The supply to a pantry sink is usually through 
tall pattern faucets, to allow a tall vessel or 
pitcher being placed below them. 

The better material for a pantry or butler's 
sink is undoubtedly slate or vitrified ware, but 
the additional cost is an item always considered. 

With the later pattern water closets, such as 
washdown and siphons, the need of a toilet sink 
in the average house is lessened, but in hotels, 
apartment and office buildings the need is greater, 
as large quantities of matter undesirable in any 



8IXKS. Ill 

other receptacle, can be better and more properly 
taken care of with such a fixture, than by using 
a water closet for the purpose. 

This sink, often made of cast iron, either plain, 
galvanized or enameled, should have a firmly 
fastened strainer, but with rather larger openings 
than usually made for kitchen sinks, to allow 
larger matter to pass through. 

The diameter of the waste should be, at least, 
two inches, and an ample supply of cold water 
should be provided to thoroughly and effectively 
wash the contents into the drain and sewer. 

Any matter that will not pass through the 
strainer should be shoveled out and burned. 

A tank should be connected to a toilet sink in 
the same manner, and at about the same height 
as for a water closet. 

If faucets are used in connection with a toilet 
sink they should be placed high enough above 
the flange to enable a pail to be placed under 
them. 

This sink is preferably made of vitrified stone- 
ware, provided with flushing rim and trap well 
vented. 

Xo part should be left so that filth can collect 
and wood work should be abolished. 



112 LAVATORIES. 

LAVATORIES. 



Lavatories or wash basins for the face and 
hands only, are necessary in up to date plumb- 
ing. 

In the average work round basins are usually 
used, yet the oval pattern is becoming more and 
popular. 

The oval pattern allows more elbow room, and 
also a larger opening, thus lessening the splash- 
ing of water over the slab or floor. 

Three kinds .of marble are used in setting lava- 
tories. 

The kind known to the trade as American, is 
soft, white, easily stained, and absorbs greasy 
matter readily. 

The Italian marble is hard, veined and white, 
obtains a good polish but stains, although not as 
readily as the American. 

The marble known as Tennesee stone, is very 
hard, procurable in dark colors only and very de- 
sirable on account of less liability to stain or 
absorb greasy or oily matter. 

This marble is desirable in colors when wish- 
ing to harmonize with wood finish. 

A marble slab should be countersunk on its 
upper surface to retain the spattered water 
and allow the surplus water to be returned to the 
bowl. 



LAVATORIES. 113 

A basin should be set up open on brackets or 
legs and all pipes exposed. This allows leaks to 
be readily detected, promotes cleanliness and 
ventilation, and ensures better workmanship. 

The basin should be set 28 to 30 inches from 
the floor to the top of the marble and provided 
with a back or spatter protector 12 to 16 inches 
high extending the length of the top. 

Beveled or O. G. edges make a desirable finish 
although a roll rim effect to compare with the 
bath tub is now in favor. 

When ordering a marble top for a basin, the 
market size of the bowl should be given, as the 
marble cutter allows one inch for each side of the 
bowl for the width of the flange. 

In attaching a basin to a slab three or four 
holes are drilled on the under side and special 
screw with expanding head is inserted. 

This screw is provided with clamp and nut and 
after wetting and spreading evenly plaster or 
cement, the nuts are tightened and the basin is 
firmly attached and suspended when in its proper 
position. 

Plaster or cement is used in preference to putty 
or white lead because the oil in the latter would 
become absorbed and stain the marble through 
to its polished surface. 

Plaster, repeatedly wetted, will soon wash 
away, thus loosening the joint and allowing the 
spattered water to run between the slab and 



114 LAVATORIES. 

bowl, thence to the floor, which is very undesir- 
able. 

Cement mixed with plaster, about half and 
half, is more desirable than plaster alone. 

Cement or plaster will not stain the marble as 
they are of a mineral nature like the marble and 
have an affinity for each other. 

The edges or flanges of the earthenware basins 
are seldom perfectly true, being warped in bak- 
ing, therefore such flanges should be ground to 
a flat level surface in order to make a satisfactory 
joint between the marble and basin. 

The overflow is the weak point about a wash 
basin as usually installed. 

When the ordinary basin is discharged the 
waste backs into 'the overflow, fouling it and 
allowing the filth thus deposited to discharge 
offensive odors into the room. 

A basin should be without mechanical parts in 
the waste pipe, either inside or outside the bowl, 
as they frequently get out of order and add foul- 
ing surface for the adhesion and accumulation 
of filth. 

No basin should be used which has concealed 
spaces with which the washing water comes in 
contact while being used. This means much to 
those who are particular as to whatthey washin. 

The siphon basin is now considered the most 
desirable, as the contents of the basin are dis- 
charged by siphonic action, the trap will always 
be clearer owing to the powerful flushing and 



LAVATORIES. 115 

scouring force caused by the rapid discharge. 

By lifting the plug and immediately dropping 
it back into place the water rushes out through 
the overflow, that connects with the waste pipe, 
below the plug. 

If by accident or design faucets are left open 
the water after attaining !ts proper level, finds 
free access through the outlet, and if the flow 
continues, a siphonic action is produced, thus 
causing a rapid discharge of the bowl contents 
and preventing an overflow. 

The contents of the basin cannot be discharged 
without flushing the overflow. 

The overflow should be as large as the waste 
pipe. 

The siphonic action prevents clogging of the 
waste as it clears out matter such as hair, lint, 
etc., with its thorough scour. 

Basin cocks of various patterns are on the 
market and as ornamental or expensive ones can 
be obtained, as may be desired. 

To avoid overflow and damage, self-closing 
faucets may be used, so that a careless person 
could not leave the water running. 

The objection to a self-closing pattern is, the 
strain on the service pipe when closing. 

When a column of water is suddenly checked, 
the strain on the pipe is greatly increased. 

The compression pattern is more suitable and 
better adapted for varying pressures, especially, 
very high ones. 



116 BATHS. 

The outlet of a basin should be at least 1% 
inches in diameter, although nearly all manu- 
facturers make them smaller. 

The waste pipe and trap should be not less than 
the outlet in diameter. 

With the combined slab and basin in one piece 
of crockery, with standard of porcelain, with 
proper sized outlet, a very sanitary appliance is 
produced and should satisfy the most fastidious. 

BATHS. 



A bathing tub, is a receptacle holding liquids 
for persons, in which to plunge or wash their 
bodies. 

A receptacle in which the whole or a part of 
the person may be washed or bathed. 

The word bath is also applied to any artificial 
contrivance which is to supply the place of a 
bath, as a shower bath, or an apparatus for 
applying water to the body in the form of a 
shower, a vapor bath by steam, etc. 

Greater improvement in bath tubs have been 
made within a few years than in any other 
plumbing fixture except water closets. 

The first well defined demand for open fixtures, 
complete in themselves, without needing expen- 
sive finish after being set in position, brought 
out the tub now known as the steel clad bath. 



BATHS. 117 

The tub consists essentially of a copper lining 
placed in a steel case, between which is a sheath- 
ing of non-conducting material, probably asbes- 
tos, which checks the loss of heat from the water 
by radiation through the walls of the tub. This 
tub is furnished with a neat polished hard wood 
rim securely puttied down to prevent water from 
getting between the two metal shells or allowing 
filth to gather under rim. 

These tubs have ornamental legs, stand free 
from the floor and walls and are practically self 
finished, the outside being tinted to suit the pur- 
chaser. 

The all porcelain roll rim baths, are very sub- 
stantial and cleanly, standing free from walls 
and being without wood work are quite sanitary. 

Overhead showers with water proof curtains as 
well as needle spray attachments are also easily 
fitted to these baths. 

Altogether these later bath patterns, with 
proper furnishings leave little to be desired even 
by the most fastidious. 

The plumber sometimes has occasion, or is 
called upon, to fit up a Russian or Turkish bath, 
or put in connections for same. 

A Russian bath, commonly called a vapor or 
steam bath, is a process of subjecting the bather 
to a warm atmosphere saturated with vapor for 
a certain time, then rubbing down and finally 
given a cold douche. 

A Turkish bath is a process of subjecting the 



118 BATHS. 

bather to a dry atmosphere having a high tem- 
perature to induce perspiration, this exposure is 
followed by water baths and rubbing or knead- 
ing. 

High grade baths of this character usually 
consist of plunge, needle or spray, sitz, douche 
and showers, with hot and cold supplies, in 
the different apartments. 

A bath should be supplied through large pipes, 
to avoid long waits, and with large outlet to 
empty rapidly also scour the interior of the 
waste. 

All baths should have a large overflow, not 
only to convey waste that is displaced by the 
sudden entrance to the bath by the bather, but 
provide for the inflow if the pressure is excessive. 

The foot of a bath should be away from the 
outer walls of a building, to prevent both trap 
and supply pipes from freezing. 

The waste from a bath tub should be not less 
than 13^ inches in diameter, to empty quickly, 
prevent lining becoming fouled and avoid chok- 
age. 

Avoid running the back vent from the bath 
trap in an horizontal position, as filth will set 
back. As this pipe is level and no water flowing 
through it except when choked, the vent soon 
becomes useless. 

The vent should be vertical to a point above 
where it is possible to fill with waste or water 
backing up. 



LAUNDKY TUBS. 119 

When this feature is observed, whatever rises 
in the vent pipe falls back into the waste by its 
own weight. 

Always keep the trap from under the tub and 
locate it so that it will be easily accessible. 

Baths should be free from wood work. 

This ensures cleanliness and promotes ventila- 
tion. 

No absorbent material should be used in the 
room or about the tub and the room itself should 
be amply ventilated. 

LAUNDRY TUBS. 



Laundry tubs or wash trays are an essential 
and labor saving fixture. 

The fact that this fixture is not usually in daily 
use should emphasize the need of especial care 
in its selection and setting. 

The material used for this fixture should be 
first considered in regard to cleanliness and dura- 
bility. 

Wooden trays should not be used for the reason 
that wood decays rapidly when alternately wetted 
and dried: and the porous nature of the wood 
readily retains the matter from the soiled linen. 

As a non-absorbent material is desirable for 
this fixture, slate, soapstone or stone-ware vitri- 
fied would be desirable. 

Soapstone and slate trays are made from slabs 



120 LAUNDRY TUBS. 

fitted to the desired shapes bolted and ground 
together. 

The vitrified stone-ware is made without joints, 
hard and practically indestructible from the ordi- 
nary use of such a fixture. 

The faucets for a laundry tub should be so 
arranged that water will enter near each corner 
provided with side or end handles. 

The reason faucets should be at the back cor- 
ners, is to allow room for the head when stooping. 

Otherwise, the person using the tub would be 
constantly hitting the head, or in raising the 
clothes catch them on the tubes or handles and 
tear them. 

The waste outlet should be in one corner to be 
out of the way as much as possible. 

If the waste plug is in the center instead of 
the rear corner, the clothes are liable to loosen 
the outlet plug by catching the chain and thus 
empty the tray. 

The trap for this fixture should be preferably 
of deep seal to prolong evaporation and resist 
back pressure as the fixture is seldom used. 

As lint and other matter from clothing is 
liable to collect in this trap, frequent examina- 
tions should be made; and all undesirable collec- 
tions removed. 

When laundry tubs are located in an exposed 
place and water pipes liable to freeze, shut offs 
should be placed beyond frost and readily 
accessible. 



URINALS. 121 

URINALS. 



On general principles a urinal is a necessity, 
but from a sanitary point of view it is one of the 
fixtures that require more thought and skill on 
the part of the plumber than any fixture with 
which he has to deal. 

In private houses urinals should not be placed, 
but in public places, such as hotels, schools and 
railroad stations, they become a great conven- 
ience as well as a necessity. 

A urinal itself should be made of vitrified 
earthenware and efficiently trapped; the trap 
well ventilated. 

Also ventilated across the water level, always 
maintained in sanitary urinals, inducing an in- 
ward air current into a flue either heated or by 
mechanical blower. 

This flue should be independent of all other 
local vent pipes and made of cast iron, as the 
ammonia in urine would corrode sheet iron in a 
short time. 

This odor is very penetrating and irritating to 
the wind pipe and nasal passages, and especial 
care should be used to dispose of it. 

A pipe conducted to the outer air would be 
preferable, as then the atmosphere deodorizes 
the fumes very quickly and effectively. 

A urinal should be set in a stall with slate 
walls and floor of same material, and should or- 



122 XJKINALS. 

dinarily set 22 inches from the floor to the top 
of lip. 

With a shallow body of water spread over the 
lower enlarged portion' of the fixture, the back 
and side moistened constantly, and an auto- 
matic flush at frequent intervals, a urinal will be 
kept as nearly sweet and clean as it is possible. 

With these precautions, it still requires con- 
stant personal attention, as this fixture is more 
liable to be abused than any other known to the 
plumber. 

In schools, other than the individual fixture is 
used ; owing partly to the danger of breakage of 
crockery, and to the larger number liable to need 
such a fixture. 

A slate back with floor depression or trough, 
is quite often used, and a stream of water allowed 
to flow constantly. 

This method seems to prove, by experience, 
more satisfactory than others. 

With the best arrangement known, without 
other care or attention than simply allowing the 
flow of water to cleanse the surfaces, the fixture 
would become foul and ill-smelling, and become 
a nuisance in a very short time. 

The floor and walls of a room, where a urinal 
is located, should be made of non-absorbent ma- 
terial, thus allowing the use of hose for washing 
all exposed surfaces. 

Urinal traps should not be made of brass as 



UKINALS. 123- 

the acids attack the metal and rapidly cause cor- 
rosion. 

Installing a siphon urinal, with a large body 
of water in the bowl, prevents the urine from 
coming in direct contact with the walls, and 
makes it possible to keep the fixture clean and 
free from odor, without the constant care and 
attention heretofore necessary in keeping the 
usual pattern of urinal even in an endurable con- 
dition. 

The large body of standing water in the bowl 
greatly reduces the fouling surface, and renders 
it possible to have urinals as free from odor as 
other plumbing fixtures. 



^ dt 



124 WATER CLOSETS. 

WATER CLOSETS. 



A water closet is an appliance, to receive the 
excrement from the person, and by flush or flow 
of water, discharge its contents into a drain or 
soil pipe connected with a sewer or cesspool. 

A water closet is the most important plumbing 
fixture in a building, and should be selected and 
installed with particular care. 

It should be made of vitreous ware, strong, neat, 
simple, securely trapped with water seal visible 
and accessible. 

All parts so constructed that they may be 
thoroughly and effectually washed, the tank 
flush copious, powerful and noiseless. 

It should contain a large and deep body of 
water to prevent its becoming offensive. 

The practice of exposing fixtures has brought 
about greater improvement in the appearance of 
water closets, than any other feature of modern 
plumbing. 

The short hopper and combination pattern con- 
sist of a trap above the fioor, and the short hop- 
per having an oval or square bowl clamped to 
the iron trap, with the combination pattern, the 
whole is made in one piece of crockery. 

This form has a flushing-rim with perforations 
to evenly distribute the wash or flow to all parts 
of its interior. 

The cleanliness of this pattern depends wholly 



WATER CLOSETS. 125 

upon the flushing to moisten its whole interior 
surface, and its efficient working is due to the 
shape of the bowl and the height of the tank. 

Hoppers made in one piece of crockery, com- 
bining both bowl and trap, are well adapted for 
general usage. 

Because of their peculiar construction, they 
are strong and durable, as well as neat and sani- 
tary, where a strong, hard usage and inexpensive 
all eathern-ware closet is required. 

As soil will cling to the surface of this form of 
bowl unless the interior is moistened before use, 
the flush is often insufficient to keep the bowl 
clean. 

Owing to the contracted area for the water 
space, the hopper pattern was supplemented by 
the washout pattern with a depression or water 
bed, this large area being filled with water in 
addition to the body of water in the trap. 

This in a measure remedied the trouble as re- 
gards the clinging of the soil to the bowl, but the 
soil was expelled with such force on its way to 
the trap, that the walls above the trap and below 
the water bed were fouled, thus being uncleanly, 
and this pattern is losing in favor mainly on this 
account. 

The depression is usually about 1% inches in 
depth and if deeper, the objection arises, that 
when the flush commences the soil is not washed 
out wholly and frequently more than one flush 
is needed to cleanse the fixture. 



126 ' WATER CLOSETS. 



All earthern-ware closets should be made of 
vitrified clay as the texture is hard and such 
ware is not liable to crack or ''craze. " 

A safe connection for setting or connecting an 
all earthen-ware closet to the soil pipe, is a brass 
floor flange soldered to the lead bend, pipe, or 
ferrule, and made gas and water tight with leaded 
joint at soil pipe branch. 

Floor flanges are provided with lag screws with 
nut and bolt, and with white lead putty a relia- 
ble joint is secured. 

Another attachment is now coming into notice 
for connecting a closet to the soil pipe consisting 
of a brass threaded nipple firmly attached to the 
closet, this part having a thread so adjusted that 
when screwed to the fiange soldered to the lead 
bend, a tight and reliable joint is secured. 

'With either of these connections the shrinkage 
of the floor will not affect the joint and allow 
sewer air to enter the premises. 

With no flange, the shrinkage of the wood 
work would loosen the joint or the drying and 
cracking of the putty would allow passage of 
foul air. 

When connecting a closet to the flush pipe, 
place a rubber joint or elbow upon the supply 
coupling of the closet. 

This prevents breakage from vibration or the 
settling of the building. A good joint of this 
kind is essential in all crockery closets. 

The "back air" pipe should be taken from the 



1 



WATER CLOSETS. 127 

lead bend under the floor or from special fitting 
in the soil pipe. 

When attached to the crockery the tension of 
the rigid connection causes the crockery to snap 
and break away from the main body of the closet 
or when the wood work shrinks and floor settles. 
It is also found that connections made with brim- 
stone also break and loosen and this form of con- 
nection is not considered safe as sooner or later 
the crockery is broken. 

The wash down hopper combines the short 
hopper and washout, with this difference, the 
body of trap is enlarged in the lower portion of 
the bowl so that a deep seal and enlarged water 
pool is combined, to receive foul matter, and 
when flushed the soil is pushed down and out of 
trap preventing the adhesion of any objection- 
able matter. 

With a standing pool of water about 7 inches 
in diameter and a three inch trap seal good re- 
sults will be obtained both in a practical and 
sanitary point of view. 

When hard usage is common or carelessness, 
this pattern would supersede nearly all the 
closets on the market. 

It combines the water bed of the washout and 
the scouring down pour of the short hopper. 

The siphon closet resembles in outward appear- 
ance the washout pattern, but operates by un- 
balancing the atmospheric pressure by filling 
the outlet leg of the closet and siphonic action is 



128 WATER CLOSETS. 

produced by so shaping the down limb or outlet 
of the trap as to make it possible for the out 
flowing water to drive out and exclude the air 
from the outlet of the trap, which when filled 
with water, forms the long leg of the siphon. 

Jet action works in conjunction with siphonic 
action and adds a powerful cleansing force to 
the fixture when in operation. 

Siphon closets should not have a back vent at- 
tached at the crown of the trap. 

To admit air at this point of the outlet or 
siphon pipe, cuts off the effective force and in 
discharging the fixture, breaks the siphon, and 
requires a much larger quantity of water at each 
operation. 

The siphon jet closet combines the jet action 
and siphonic principle. Jet action is in plain 
sight and if properly constructed the jet closet 
does not require more than a gallon of water for 
each discharge, which should be appreciated 
when water is metered, and the scouring effect is 
as efficient as though the closet used more water. 

These closets if scientifically constructed, have 
from 33^ to 4 inches of water seal in the trap and 
a total depth from surface of water to bottom of 
outlet of 7 inches. 

The protection against sewer air is almost 
absolute. The depth of water in the bowl and 
trap making it almost impossible for air to escape 
into the room, 



WATEK CLOSETS. 129 

The outlet of the trap is always in sight, and 
the water level if lowered is quickly noticed. 

The bowl holds enough water to deodorize 
faecal matter and prevents the fouling of the 
walls of the closet. 

The trap cannot lose its seal by any well known 
causes without the fact being known. 

Each discharge of the tank thoroughly scours 
and flushes the walls of the bowl and outlet pipe. 

No siphon jet fixture should be specified or 
used unless it is tested under water pressure 
before shipment and guaranteed to be perfect in 
construction and operation by a responsible 
factory. 

It is dangerous to use a cheap fixture of this 
type because to experiment with goods not tested 
or guaranteed is sure to result in trouble and ex- 
pense in the end. 

The pneumatic siphon requires two traps and 
its operation is as follows: — 

The water in a specially fitted tank, being 
started downward to the closet, surrounds the 
conical upper end of the air pipe at the top of 
tlie flush pipe. 

This air pipe is connected to the flush pipe and 
the space between the closet trap. 

The falling water exhausts the air between 
the traps and the air is mingled with the down 
flowing water to the closet. 

The air between the two traps being exhausted, 
the space is filled with watei from the tank 



130 WATER CLOSETS. 

through the discharge outlet of the bowl, draw- 
ing all contents of the bowl with it. 

When the water in the tank is exhausted, the 
upper end of the flush pipe becomes free to admit 
air between the two traps which immediately 
breaks siphonic action and the bowl fills to its 
overflow through a service box in tank. 

The semi-pneumatic siphon is a combination 
of the pneumatic and siphon jet principles. 

The flush water divides immediately after 
entering the bowl, part going to the siphon jet 
and part to the flush rim of the bowl as usually 
arranged, except, that the part of the water 
which operates the jet passes through a con- 
tracted nozzle. 

This nozzle has a trap to prevent air getting 
into the flush pipe or rim of the closet from the 
space between the two traps. 

The trap helps to spray the water as it issues 
from the injector nozzle, by which action the 
fouled air from between the traps is exhausted 
with the water into the soil pipe. 

Exhausting the air from between the traps is 
the feature similar to pneumatic closets, while 
the jet action is a counterpart of what is em- 
bodied in the siphon jet closets, with the excep- 
tion of the trapped spraying nozzle, which serves 
in conjunction with the pneumatic feature. 

The triple jet siphon, when the water reaches 
the bowl, Is divided into three parts, one going 
to the flushing rim, one to the up jet and the 



WATER CLOSETS. 131 

other to the down jet, all acting simultaneously 
and it is claimed to be more effective and less 
noisy than other patterns. 

Siphon jet closets are less noisy in their action 
than other forms and in this respect at least are 
especially adapted to private residences. 

In general those closets that retain a body of 
water in the basin are considered the best in 
ratio to the water surface exposed and also its 
depth, as faecal matters are at once immersed 
thus preventing foul odors arising. 

A water closet of whatever style, should have 
a tank supply, and the flush pipe should be not 
less than 1% inches to secure a satisfactory sup- 
ply, to ensure the discharge of its contents. 

Tanks are made to regulate the amount, or 
can, by holding the valve open, discharge their 
entire contents. 

A trickling stream of water is no benefit to a 
closet in respect to cleanliness. 

The sudden discharge of a large quantity of 
water is much more effective and economical 
for the water supply. 

Tanks should be placed in such a position that 
they can be easily inspected, cleaned and ven- 
tilated. 

It is unwise to connect a water closet to a tank 
that supplies the house boiler as the overflow pipe 
allows the foul air about a closet to rise to the 
tank ; this air is absorbed by the water, contami- 



132 WATER CLOSETS. 

nating and rendering the water unfit for domestic 
use. 

A ventilating pipe should be attached to the 
closet bowl, of suitable area, above the normal 
water level, and extended to a heated flue if 
possible. 

The object of this pipe is to conduct foul air 
from the space between the seat and water, 
while the closet is in use, also to assist in chang- 
ing the air in the water closet apartment by in- 
ducing an inward air current towards the closet 
ajiid over the water into this flue. 

A back air pipe should be connected to pre- 
vent the unsealing of the trap by a rush of water 
past the branch or by the discharge of an upper 
closet into the same soil pipe. 

The floors under a water closet should be of 
marble, slate or some non-absorbent material. 
No boxing in of a water closet should be allowed. 

With open work about a closet the nearest 
approach to perfect freedom from unpleasant 
odors is obtained. 

The room in which the closet is situated should 
be well lighted and ventilated, and the whole 
apparatus, tank and connections, should have 
regular attention to keep them in proper con- 
dition. 

With the modern approved pattern of closets, 
no good excuse exists why the water closet and 
its surrounding cannot be kept clean and free 
from air pollution. 



MISCELLANEOUS, 133 

MISCELLANEOUS. 



Velocity. A heavy body falling freely ac- 
quires a velocity of 32.2 feet per second. . 

The velocity imparted to water by a given 
head is the same as that acquired by a heavy 
body in falling through a height equal to the 
head; therefore, to find the velocity of water: 
multiply the height by twice 32.2 and extract the 
square root of the product, and the velocity in 
feet per second will be obtained. 

To find the velocity of water passing through 
a straight horizontal pipe of any length and 
diameter, the head of the fluid above the center 
of the orifice, being known: multiply the head 
in feet, by 2500, and divide the product by the 
length of the pipe, in feet, multiplied by 13.9, 
divided by the interior diameter of the pipe in 
inches ; the square root of the quotient will be 
the velocity in feet, per second. 

To find the head necessary to produce a re- 
quired velocity, through a pipe of given length 
and diameter, (Winslow) : multiply the square 
of the required velocity, in feet- per second, by 
the length of the pipe, multiplied by the quotient 
obtained by dividing 13.9 by the diameter of the 
pipe in inches, and divide the product by 2500; 
the quotient will be the head in feet. 

To find the number of U. S. gallons contained 
in a foot of pipe of any diameter: multiply 



184 MISCELLANEOUS. 

actual sectional area of the pipe in square inches 
by 12, and divide by 231, the quotient will be U. 
S. gallons. 

To find the thickness of lead pipe required, 
when the head of water is given: multiply the 
head in feet, by size of pipe wanted, expressed 
decimally, and divide by 750: the quotient will 
give thickness required, in one-hundredths of an 
ilich. 

To find the quantity of water flowing through 
a pipe of any length and diameter: multiply the 
velocity in feet per second, by the area of the 
discharging orifice in feet, and the product is the 
quantity, in cubic feet, discharged per second. 

Flow of water through orifices : 

To find quantity discharged per minute, mul- 
tiply area of the orifice in square feet by the 
square root of the height of the level of the 
water above the orifice, in feet, and the product 
multiplied by 297.6 will equal discharge in cubic 
feet, nearly. 

A column of water 12 inches high exerts a 
downward pressure of .434 of a pound to the 
square inch. 

This pressure per square inch is due to head, 
(height that the water rises above opening) irre- 
spective of volume or anything else, except ver- 
tical height of column, 

A column of water of square inch base 27.71 
inches high, gives one pound pressure. 

To find the pressure, in pounds per square inch. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 135 

of a column of water, multiply the height of 
the column in feet by .434. 

A gallon of water contains 231 cubic inches, 
or 294 cylindrical inches. 

A cubic foot of water contains 7.48 gallons. 

A cubic yard of water contains 201.97 gallons. 

Water at the average temperature of 62° weighs 
62.32 lbs, per cubic foot, and 8.33 lbs, per gallon. 

A cubic foot of water at 62° is nearly one 
ounce lighter than water at 39°, or maximum 
density. 

Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its 
capacity four times. 

The diameter of a circle, multiplied by 3.1416 
equals the circumference. 

The square of the diameter of a circle multi- 
plied by .7854 equals the area. 

Dividing the circumference of a circle by 
3.1416 equals the diameter. 

The square of a radius of a circle multiplied by 
3.1416 equals the area. 

The circumference of a circle multiplied by 
0.1591 equals the radius. 

The radius of a circle multiplied by 6.283+ 
equals the circumference. 

Water pipes are round instead of square because 
water naturally whirls in circular motions and 
presents less friction than in square or other 
shapes. 

Proportion of rain water conductors to roof 
surface : 



136 MISCELLANEOUS. 

One square inch of leader opening to 2400 
square feet of any roof surface. 

The maximum rainfall as shown by statistics, 
is about one inch per hour, except during very 
heavy storms, equal to 22.633 gallons per hour 
for each acre, or 377 gallons per minute per acre. 

Owing to various obstructions, not more than 
50 or 75 per cent of the rainfall will reach the 
drain within the same hour, and allowance should 
be made for this fact in determining size of pipe 
required. 

The following . table gives friction loss in 
pounds pressure, for each 100 feet of length in 
different size, clean iron pipe, discharging given 
quantities of water per minute and velocity of 
flow in pipe per second. 

VAn. %in. lin. l%in. lyAn. 
Gals, discharged /2 /4 /* /a 

per minute, 5 gal. 5 gal. 5 gal. 5 gal. 5 gal. 

Velocity per sec- 
ond, 8.17 3.63 2.04 1.31 .91 

Friction loss in 
pounds, 24.6 3.03 .84 .31 .12 

10 gal. 10 gal. 10 gal. 10 gal. 10 gal. 
Velocity per sec- & » & & & 

ond, 16.3 7.25 4.08 2.61 1.82 

Friction loss in 

pounds, 96.0 13.0 3.16 1.05 0.47 

15 gal. 15 gal. 15 gal. 15 gal. 
Velocity per sec- & & & & 

ond, ' 10.9 6.14 3.92 2.73 

Friction loss in 

pounds, 28.7 6.98 2.38 .97 



MISCKLI,ANKOU8. 



137 



The friction loss is for plain pipe laid on a uni- 
form grade and in straight lines. Any variations 
from these conditions will increase the friction 
and lessens the discharge. 

The following table may often save time in 
giving areas of the following size pipes in square 
feet. 



DIAMETER. 


AREA. 


DIAMETER AREA. 


K 


in. 


.0003 


1% in. 


.0167 


% 


in. 


.0008 


2 in. 


.0218 


V. 


in. 


.0014 


3 in. 


.0491 


% 


in. 


.0021 


4 in. 


.0873 


% 


in. 


.0021 


5 in. 


.1364 


1 


in. 


.0055 


6 in. 


.1063 


1% 


in. 


.0085 


7 in. 


.2673 


1% 


in. 


.0123 


8 in. 


.3491 


Lead 


Pipe. 


Weight, 


calibre 


and outside 


diameter. 










CALIBRE. 


WEIGHT PER FOOT. OUTSIDE DIAMETER. 


inches 




Ibs.-ozs. 




inches. 






1-0 

1-4 




41-64 
35-50 


H 




1-8 




3-4 


% 




1-12 




25-32 


% 




2-0 




41-48 


Y2 




1-8 




13-16 


% 




1-12 




41-48 


% 




2-0 




7-8 


% 




2-8 




46-48 


% 




3-0 




1 1-48 



1^^ MISCELLANEOUS. 



CALIBRE. 


WEIGHT PER FOOT. 


OUTSIDE DIAMETER 


inches 


Ibs.-ozs. 


] 


inches. 


% 


4-0 




1-8 


'% 


1-12 




59-64 


% 


2-0 




48-50 


% 


2-4 






% 


2-8 




1-24 


% 


2-12 




1-20 


.% 


3-0 




5-64 


% 


2-0 




1-16 


% 


2-4 




5-64 


% 


2-3 




1-S 


% 


2-12 




3-20 


% 


3-0 




1-6 


% 


3-8 




14-64 


% 


4-0 




17-64 


1 


2-0 




1-4 


1 


2-4 




17-64 


1 


2-8 




7-24 


1 


3-0 




11-32 


1 


3-8 




3-8 


1 


4-0 






1% 


2-8 




5-12 


1^ 


3-0 




17-32 


1% 


3-8 




37-64 


1% 


4-0 




5-8 


1% 


3-0 




3-4 


1^ 


3-8 




25-32 


1^ 


4-0 . 




13-16 



MISCELLANEOUS. 139 

Table showing the weight of lead pipe required 
for a given head (or fall) of water. The weights 
given are of sufficient strength to allow the water 
to be shut off, (or stopped.) When water is 
allowed to run constantly, lighter weights can be 
used — say two thirds of those given. 

i-^ I— I ^ ^ 

iT O -^ CT 4i^ 03 hd S 2 



CJ 



^ 


^ 

wW 




t—t' 


1— I 






o 


h 


en 


o 


w 






fco 


tc 


t-^ 


t— 1 


o 




o 


X 


o 




*»^ 






to 


iO 


io 


to 


to 


■ H-i 


h-l 


I— I 


00 


o 


1—1 


o 


to 


X 


■>^ 


4^ 


*^ 


w 


bO 


to 


h- 1 


1—1 


X 


o 


X 


X 


o 


1—1 

bO 


X 


Ci 


c^ 


>;^ 


w 


bO 




bO 



o o 

X 



C 3 



O 
H-i h-i 1—1 t-i o w' ::.^ 



h-i ^ 1-1 O 



X o oc 



O -a rt *>. CO bO bO 

O O O O O X o 



booci::^4^ wco ^ 

ooooo xo s 



i2! 



bo • n 



5 '"' O 
2 ? 3 



o 



140 MISCELI.AIS^EOUS. 

A cubic foot of air at 32° F., under a press- 
ure of 14.7 lbs per square inch, weighs 0.08 lbs. 

One cubic foot of air equals 1.292 ounces, or 
.23 oxygen and .77 nitrogen. 

Ammonia gas, can be detected by using red 
litmus paper. It will turn blue or yellow. 

Carbonic acid gas can be detected by using 
moist, blue litmus paper. It will turn red if this 
gas is present. 

The poicer necessary to raise water depends 
upon the height to be overcome and the quantity 
to be delivered. 

To determine the necessary power to work a 
pump: — 

Multiply the number of gallons desired per 
minute, by 8.33, (weight of one gallon of water) 
then multiply the product by the height in feet 
to which the water is raised, and it gives the 
number of foot pounds. Divide the product by 
33000, (one horse power) and the result is the 
horse power, or its fractional part, required to do 
the work. 

The capacity of a pump can be determined 
easily when the diameter of cylinder and length 
of stroke are given. 

Square the diameter and multiply by .7854 
which gives the area. Multiply this product by 
length of stroke, multiply this product by num- 
ber of strokes per minute resulting in number of 
cubic inches delivered in one minute. To reduce 
to gallons, divide by 231, (the number of cubic 



MISCELLANEOUS. 141 

inches in a gallon) and the quotient gives num- 
ber of gallons delivered per minute. 

The diameter of the suction pipe should not be 
less than about half the diameter of pump 
cylinder. 

Ikon Rust Cement. Composed of iron borings 
or filings. Sal-ammoniac 1, sulphur 1, vrhiting 4. 
Mix with water and use. It formes a dense rust, 
used for stopping joints or cracks in iron work. 

Ikon Pipe Joints. Ground litharge, 10 pounds 
best quality, 4 pounds best Paris whiting, 2 
pounds dry red lead, % pound yellow ochre, ^ 
ounce hemp cut fine ; mix thoroughly with boiled 
linseed oil to the consistency of thick putty and 
make joints in usual manner. This mixture sets 
quickly when heat is applied. It repairs boilers, 
resists fire, and will set in water. 

Lateral Pressure. The rule for calculating 
the lateral pressure is generally applicable to all 
cases when the vessel containing the liquid has 
a flat, horizontal bottom and perpendicular sides. 

Find the number of square feet in the sides be- 
low the surface of the liquid, multiply that by the 
number of feet in half the depth of the liquid, 
the product will express the number of solid feet 
of the liquid, the weight of which is equal to the 
lateral pressure. 

The number of square feet in the sides may be 
found by multiplying the number of feet in the 
circumference of the bottom by the number of 
t in the depth of the liquid. 



142 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

METALS AND ALLOYS. 



What is a metal ? 

An elementary mineral substance possessing 
considerable specific gravity, hardness and cohe- 
sion and requiring a high degree of heat to 
liquify. 

Give the symbol, ore and composition of the 
metals of interest to plumbers. 



METAL. 


SYMBOL. 


ORE. 


COMPOSITION. 


Lead 


Pb 


Galena 


Lead & Sulphur 


Tin 


Sn 


Tinstone 


Tin & Oxygen 


Zinc 


Zn 


Blende 


Zinc & Sulphur 






Glance 


Copper & Sulphur 


Copper 


Cu 


Pyrites Iron, " 






Magnetite 




Iron 


Fe 


Hematite 


Iron & Oxygen 


Give the relative tenacity of the above metals. 


Lead 


1 


or lowest 


;. 


Tin 


IK 


times that of lead. 


Zinc 


2 


(( u 


(( n 


^ Copper 18 


4h (C 


(C i( 


Iron 

r^ • J.1 




n •Liij 


U 4i 
J _^ J.1- - r j._l_ 



Give the relative malleability of the 5 metals. 
Copper, Tin, Lead, Zinc and Iron. 

What does tenacity denote? 

The relative power of resistance the metals 
have, to being torn apart. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 143 

On what does the malleability of a metal 
depend? 

A great deal on its tenacity, coupled with soft- 
ness. 

What is the melting point of iron and some of 
its properties ? 

Melts at 2.786° F., is very ductile and mal- 
leable and appears in three forms, malleable, 
or wrought, in its purest state, or cast, when con- 
taining carbon in different proportions. 

At what temperature will zinc melt and what 
are its peculiarities? 

Melts at 773° F., is somewhat brittle and 
fairly permanent in air. It is a protecting 
coating for iron under the name of galvanized 
iron, and dissolves easily in acids. 

What are the peculiarities of Tin and its melt- 
ing point? 

Melts at 428°, is a brilliant white metal in 
the pure state and produces a peculiar crack- 
ling noise when bent, called the "cry" of tin. 
It is very malleable, but also slightly ductile. 

What is Copper, its melting point and some of 
its uses? 

An elementary metallic substance of a pale, red 
color, moderately hard, malleable and ductile. 
Copper fuses at 1996°, F. It is the most use- 
ful of all the metals for alloy. Mixed with 
tin it forms bronze : with zinc it forms brass : is a 



144 QUESTIONS AND ANSWEKS. 

good conductor of heat and electricity and one of 
the most useful of metals. 

What is Brass, its uses and melting point? 

It is composed of Copper and Zinc of diiferent 
proportions and has no certain temperature for 
fusing as the component parts vary; about 
1100 °,F. It is one of the most useful of 
alloys, -more fusible than copper and not so apt 
to tarnish. It is malleable when cold but not so 
when heated. 

Describe the properties of lead, its melting 
point and some of its uses? 

Lead is of a bluish gray color, very soft and of 
slight tenacity. Its proper name is Galena or 
Sulphide of Lead. It melts at 612 to 617 degrees, 
F., according to its purity. It is used in the arts 
and sciences, and combines with other metals in 
various alloys. 

What are alloys and some of their properties? 

An alloy is a combination by fusion of two or 
more metals. All alloys are opaque, have a 
rrietallic luster, are more or less ductile, elastic 
and malleable, also good conductors of heat and 
electricity. 

What is solder, and of what is plumbers' solder 
composed ? 

A metal or alloy to unite adjacent metallic 
edges or surfaces and is composed of lead and tin 
in diiferent proportions. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWEKS. 145 

What are the proportions of Lead and Tin in 
plumbers' solders, and their melting points? 

Coarse mixture, 3 lead, 1 tin, melts 480° 

Plumbers' '' 60 '* 40 ^' " 440° 

Fine '* 1 " 1 " " 370° 

Tin pipe '* 1 '* 1^ " " 330° 

What spoils solder and how should it be 
cleaned ? 

Allowing Zinc or Antimony to mix with it and 
by burning it. 

Clean it by heating the solder to 900° or more, 
introducing sulphur, which helps impurities to 
rise. When this is skimmed, put in resin, and 
the mixture should be purified. This high tem- 
perature is needed to melt Antimony which fuses 
at 834°, and Zinc at 773°. 

Why should solder never be allowed to burn? 
Because the pliable property and nutriment 
are extracted. 

What are some of the fluxes used in soldering 
different metals ? 

For iron, borax or sal-ammoniac. For zinc, 
copper or brass, — sal-ammoniac or zinc chloride. 
For lead or tin pipes, — tallow or resin. Also, for 
iron and zinc drop small pieces of zinc into two 
ounces of muriatic acid until bubbles cease to 
rise; then add a little water. 



146 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

PUMPS. 



What is a pump ? 

A machine for raising water or fluids, consist- 
ing of a barrel or cylinder, a piston or bucket 
and lower valve. 

What is the principle on which the action of a 
pump depends and what enables it to lift water? 

Atmospheric pressure forces or presses the 
water into a vacuum formed by the working of 
the piston to a hight not exceeding 33 feet, this 
hight being the limit that air will sustain a 
column of water. 

What is the practical hight a pump can lift 
water and discharge the capacity of the barrel ? 

From 25 to 28 feet, or for each inch the mer- 
cury rises in the barometer allow for 13 inches of 
water to rise. 

What is the difference between a lift and force 
pump ? 

A lift pump simply raises the fluid to a spout 
where it overflows. A force pump delivers the 
fluid under pressure so as to eject it forcibly or 
deliver it at an elevation. 

Describe a single and double acting force 
pump? 

The single acting is that in which the lift and 
delivery are alternate. 

The double acting is that in which the passages 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 147 

and valves are dnplicated, so that a lift and 
delivery are obtained by each motion of the plun- 
ger or piston. 

What is the object and advantage of using air 
or vacuum chambers on pumps? 

The air chamber is intended to equalize the 
flow of fluid from a reciprocating pump. The 
action of the pump being intermittent. The 
body of air confined in the upper part of the 
chamber forms an elastic cushion, by compres- 
sion and expansion, against which the water 
strikes when lifted. The object is to avoid the 
jar which occurs when a column of water is sud- 
denly arrested. 

In pumping from wells what precaution should 
be taken with end of suction pipe ? 

It should have a perforation on end of pipe in 
well, or a fine wire basket, to prevent leaves, 
sand or sediment being drawn into valves of 
pump. 

What is a driven well? An artesian well? 

A driven well is one where the suction pipe is 
driven into the ground until water is found 
(not exceeding 33 feet) and pumped out. 

An artesian well is one where the pipe is driven 
into the ground to a deep water bearing strata, 
the hydrostatic pressure of which will deliver 
the water without pumping. 

How is a leak found in a suction pipe? 

As air endeavors to enter the pipe no water will 



148 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

be seen but a hissing sound will be heard if an 
opening has been made. 

What are the essentials of a durable and prop- 
erly set pump ? 

Simplicity, strength, tight joints and allowance 
made in selecting a pump, that the diameter and 
length of suction will not require an air chamber. 

What is the benefit of a foot valve in connection 
with a pump? 

When lower box of pump leaks, the foot valve 
being tight, holds the pipe full, and avoids the 
necessity of repriming the pump. Especially 
beneficial on long suction pipes. 

Will a long horizontal suction pipe make any 
difference in the working of a pump ? 

Yes. More friction makes the pump work 
harder and wears the pump, making repairs 
necessary more frequently. 



t5t t3t 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 149 

HYDRAULIC RAM. 



What is the principle on which the hydraulic 
ram operates? 

Momentum and reaction. The column of water 
is set in motion by opening a waste valve, and 
after a certain velocity is acquired, the waste 
valve is suddenly closed. The moving column 
has by this means acquired certain energy, which 
it expends in forcing a portion of its volume 
through a check valve and to a higher head than 
its source. 

What length should a feed or drive pipe be to 
operate the ordinary ram ? 

From 25 to 50 feet in length, in order to get a 
sufficient bulk of water to operate the ram, and 
as the proportion between the supply and de- 
livery head becomes greater, the length of the 
drive pipe must be increased. 

What proportion should the size of drive pipe 
be to the delivery pipe ? 
About three times the area. 

About what per cent will the common hy- 
draulic ram deliver? 

From 50 to 65 per cent, according to design 
and adjustment. 

What rule is usually applied to determine the 
hight that a ram will deliver water? 
For each foot fall of drive pipe, it is claimed 



150 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

that 5 feet of water will be raised in the delivery 
pipe. 

How is the flow adjusted? 

By raising or lowering nut on impetus valve, 
the valve action will be made fast or slow. 

What conditions are needed to ensure proper 
and economical results? 

Ample supply, allowing waste to equal three 
(3) times that delivered. At least 18 inches fall 
on drive pipe. Area of drive or supply pipe to be 
twice that of delivery, and strong valves and 
working parts, especially the impetus valve. 

tit ,3t 

WATER AND ITS DISTRIBU= 
TION. 



What is water and in what condition does it 
exist? 

It is composed of two volumes of hydrogen and 
one of oxygen. Free from taste and smell when 
pure, and almost colorless. It solidifies at 32° 
or less, becomes a liquid between 32° and 212°, 
and gaseous at 212° and above. 

When is water at its greatest density and what 
are some of the peculiarities of water? 

Its greatest density is at 39.2° as it expands 
whether its temperature is increased or dimin- 
ished^ It is almost inelastic, a bad conductor of 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWEKS. 151 

heat, expands and becomes lighter when heated, 
and is a very important solvent and dilutent. 

What is specific gravity ? 

The ratio of the weight of a body to the weight 
of an equal volume of some other body, taken as 
a standard. This standard is usually water for 
solids and liquids, and air for gases. 

Is water ever naturally pure ? 

No. In rain water it absorbs the impurities of 
the air. Spring and river water contains the 
more impure mineral constituents which it dis- 
solves when coming in contact with the different 
strata. Distilling will purify it. 

What column of water gives one pound press- 
ure to the square inch ? 
27.71 inches at 39°. One ounce lighter at 62°. 

How many gallons in a cubic foot of water? 
7.48+ gallons. Usually called 73^ gallons. 

What is the expanding pressure of freezing 
water, and is ice larger than when liquid? 

Pressure about 30,000 lbs to the square inch. 
Ice is one-eleventh larger and lighter than water. 

What expansion does water undergo in its con- 
version into steam ? 

A cubic inch of water makes about a cubic 
foot of steam of the atmospheric pressure. 

What are the advantages and disadvantages of 
lead, plain iron, galvanized iron, brass, block tin, 



152 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

tin-lined lead, lead-lined iron and tin-lined iron 
water pipes ? 

1. All Lead. Advantages : Pliability, 
strength, durability. Disadvantages: Danger 
from corrosion and poisoning. 

2. Plain Ikon. Advantages: Cheapness, ease 
of putting together, and safety from poisoning. 
Disadvantages : Want of durability, owing to rust 
eating holes in it, filling from same cause, and 
being affected by contact with most soils. 

3. Galvanized Ikon. Advantages: Cheap- 
ness, and they are slightly more durable than 
plain iron. Disadvantages: Some water decom- 
poses zinc, and the salts are poisonous if taken in 
large quantity. 

4. Bkass Pipe. Advantages: Durable and 
safe when properly coated with tin, strong and 
easily jointed. Disadvantages: Supposed to be 
poisonous when not properly tinned. 

5. Block Tin. Advantages: Perfectly safe. 
Disadvantages: Expensive, difficult to work, hot 
water affects it injuriously. 

6. Tin-lined Lead. Advantages: A good 
pipe for cold water ; strength and durability of 
lead, and purity of tin, make it perfectly safe; to 
work it properly and safely, Bismuth solder 
should be used to joint it ; also insert well-tinned 
ferrules. 

7. Lead-lined Ikon. Advantages: Rigidity 
of iron, smoothness of bore of lead, no rust to 
collect or close bore of pipe ; durable ; less cost 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 153 

than all lead for heavy pressures. Disadvan- 
tages: Corrodes and collapses in iron shell. 

8. Tin-lined Iron. Advantages: Perfectly 
safe, rigidity of iron, as pure as glass. 

What must be guarded against in using tin- 
lined lead pipe ? 

Care must be taken in making joints to avoid 
too high temperature as the tin will run and the 
joint will be weakened at that^ point. 

How should a lead pipe be joined to an iron 
pipe? 

By a wiped joint to a brass ferrule on soil pipe 
and a brass solder nip or union on supply pipes. 

Should the supply pipe be so arranged that it 
can be emptied, and why? 

Yes; it should descend gradually to the lowest 
convenient point where it can be shut off to pre- 
vent freezing and for needed repairs. 

What means should be adopted to give uniform 
supply to fixtures so that drawing water on 
lower floor will not stop or lessen the flow on an 
upper floor to a serious extent ? 

Proportion branches according to pressure and 
hight of building, also supply each floor with 
separate branch from enlarged main pipe in 
cellar ensuring more uniform supply. 

What precaution should be taken to prevent 
pipes from freezing, and what means are used to 
thaw when frozen ? 



154 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

Place pipes away from outside walls or ex- 
posed places; also protect pipes with felting, 
paper, etc. When frozen thaw by applying 
heat externally or by injecting steam or hot 
water into and around pipe. 

In laying supply pipes under upper floors what 
precaution can be taken to protect the ceiling 
below from leaks, should any occur? 

By placing them in a lead-lined box, having a 
waste pipe from the lowest point of box. 

If a street supply pressure is insufficient to 
reach upper floors, what arrangement can be 
made to supply upper fixtures ? 

Install a tank and force pump, with large ris- 
ing main pipe to avoid frictional resistance, 
especially in high buildings. 

Can a water supply pipe be so arranged that 
drawing water on the lower floors will not retard 
or stop the flow on the upper floors to a serious 
extent? 

Yes. A pipe of sufficient area should be 
extended from lower floor or street main to high- 
est point needed and branching smaller pipes on 
each floor would allow the full capacity of the 
faucet to be discharged without perceptible loss. 
It is presumed that the pressure head would de- 
liver the water on highest floor. 

Can supply pipes be so arranged that water 
may be drawn through the same pipe from 
either street main or tank ? 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 155 

Yes. A check valve arranged to close against 
the street pressure near the tank would allow 
the tank to supply when the street pressure was 
too low to rise to tank. A check valve should 
also be placed at the i3oint where the street press- 
ure arises at lowest ebb and tank pressure will 
close. This method would be practicable only 
when the street pressure varies so as to allow 
the tank to fill at stated periods. 

Under what conditions will water hammer 
occur and how remedied? 

Under high pressures and on long lines of pipe 
where few angle fittings are installed. Reme- 
died by placing air chambers, of sufficient capac- 
ity, at the extreme ends of pipe line, thus 
reducing the shock caused by suddenly check- 
ing the flow. 

What effect, on the flow of water, is caused by 
air locks in supply pipes? 

In low pressure work, such as tank or spring 
supply the air will retard and often completely 
stop the flow by being confined in such quantities 
as to overcome the weight of water due to the 
head. 

Under what conditions would a safety and 
vacuum valve be needed and where placed ? 

Safety valves are intended to open when an 
excess of pressure on the boiler prevails and 
relieve the strain in the boiler and pipes from 
interior pressure. Vacuum valves are intended 



156 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

to operate when the exterior pressure exceeds 
the interior pressure. These valves may be com- 
bined and attached to hot water pipe over boiler. 
Safety valves are not needed when the boiler is 
supplied from tank and an expansion pipe pro- 
vided. Vacuum valves are needed if boiler is 
liable to have a vacuum formed within it because 
the atmospheric pressure will crush it unless the 
vacuum is destroyed. 

What effect has the contracted vein on the flow 
of water from tanks, etc. ? 

The flush pipe is not completely filled and the 
scouring force and velocity is lessened. The 
capacity of the pipe is reduced. 

At what temperature will water evaporate? 

At all temperatures. More rapidly when cur- 
rents of air pass over it, especially if the air be 
warm or dry. 

Of what benefit to a water supply system is a 
pressure regulator? 

When the pressure is excessive it prevents 
water hammer, undue strain on pipes and pro- 
longs the life of pipes and water fixtures. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 157 

HEAT AND VENTILATION. 



What is a ventilator? 

An arrangement or duct for supplying fresh 
air and removing foul air from rooms or close 
places. 

What two methods of ventilation are usually 
used? 

The "vacuum" by withdrawing the foul air 
and allowing the fresh air to flow in and supply 
its place. This requires air ducts and heat to 
produce a vacuum or induce a current, by chang- 
ing density of atmosphere. 

The "plenum" by forcing in fresh air which 
drives the foul air before it to the outlet. This 
method requires fans and mechanical motive 
power but is more positive under all conditions. 

What method is usually used in the average 
house in a toilet room, and how applied? 

The "vacuum" method. A toilet room to be 
rightly ventilated, the air should be induced to 
enter through and across the bowl of a water 
closet and connected by an air duct with a heated 
flue if possible. When a chimney or heated flue 
is not available, heat should be artificially sup- 
plied. A proper inlet should be provided of 
sufficient area, and its base near the ground level, 
and the outlet extended through roof or into 
chimney at high point, with branch for each 
water closet fixture. This method depends upon 



158 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

the air being less dense in the building than at 
the ground level outside, to induce an upward 
current. By this method, the air about a water 
closet will seldom find its way into the room, 
thus keeping the room sweet and wholesome. 

What is heat and its effect ? 

A condition of matter which can be transferred 
from one body to another and produces, 1st, — an 
increase of temperature and expansive pressure. 
2nd, — a change of volume. 3d, — a molecular 
change, as from a solid to a liquid, or from liquid 
or solid to a gaseous state. 

Into what distinctive terms can heat be 
divided? 

1st, — "Latent," or the heat which is absorbed 
by bodies in passing from one state to another, 
but it does not manifest itself by producing an 
increase of temperature. 

2nd, — "Specific," or the quantity of heat re- 
quired to raise the temperature of a body of a 
given weight one degree ; the unit of measure 
being the quantity required to raise the same 
weight of water to the same temperature. 

3d, — "Convected, " as when a liquid is heated 
from below, currents of liquid rise from the 
bottom to the top, until the liquid acquires a 
uniform temperature. This movement of heat 
by waves of matter is known as "convection. " 

4th, — "Radiated, " when heat moves through 
space like light in all directions. 



li 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 159 



In what way does the specific heat of a body 
enable the quantity of heat in it to be deter- 
mined*? 

If any body has only half the specific heat of 
water, then a pound of that body will, at any 
given temperature, have only half the heat in it 
that is in a pound of water at the same tempera- 
ture. The specific heat of air is 3.75 times less 
than that of water. An amount of heat, there- 
fore, that would raise a pound of water 1°, 
would raise a pound of air 3.75°. The specific 
heat of air is .2669°, that of water being 1°. 

How can an intelligent understanding of the 
theory and principles of heat help the plumber? 

That, by applying the expansive properties of 
heat, he may be enabled to properly adjust the 
inlet and outlet for ventilating a plumbing 
system, as well as make proper connections for 
warming water for domestic purposes. 

What precaution should be used in connecting 
and placing local vent pipes ? 

Avoid dead levels and square angles. En- 
deavor to secure as vertical or rising positions as 
possible, with long sweeping bends in order to 
avoid frictional resistance. Slant pipes from fix- 
ture in same manner as a waste pipe would be 
placed to drain a fixture, — with this difference, 
— air rises, water falls. 

What is the i)rimary object of ventilation, and 



160 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

the effect, in a general way, of bad ventilation 
upon human beings ? 

The primary object is the removal of vitiated 
air and air of better quality is supposed to flow 
in and replace it. The general effect is the low- 
ering of the vital energies of persons, producing, 
what is called "general debility" thus becoming 
more susceptible to disease. 

Upon what principle is natural ventilation 
based? 

The circulation of air is directly due to the 
difference of temperatures or densities, in the 
various parts of a building or flue. Whenever 
the weight of • a column of air in a chimney or 
soil pipe is less than the normal atmosphere, 14.7 
lbs., the internal air cannot balance that of the 
external air and results in driving the internal 
air upward and allowing the heavier air to flow 
in and replace it. 

In arranging local or seat ventilation what 
method should be adopted to produce the most 
positive circulations in the average case? 

Vent pipes should be arranged with few angles 
or abrupt changes of direction. Connecting to a 
heated flue, a gas jet burning in a flue, or a 
forced draught produced by mechanism. 

Are cowls or ventilators helpful in plumbing 
ventilation when fresh air is most needed? 

Ventilators prevent the rain entering the duct 
to which they are connected and often assist an 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 161 

upward draught when a strong wind is blowing. 
Ventilation is most needed when the air is stag- 
nant or saturated and natural methods in warm 
weather are not positive owing to the fact that 
variation of densities is not enough to produce 
circulation. Ventilators are detrimental under 
such conditions. 

What is generally considered drainage ventila- 
tion? 

Drain extensions from sewer to roof with 
branch lines from each fixture connected with 
separate circulation pipes are usually considered 
sanitary. Drainage ventilation depends upon 
an ample and constant current of air through 
every part of the system to prevent unequal 
pressures. 

Will drain air always flow in the same direc- 
tion when proper inlets and outlets are provided, 
if all fixtures are at rest? 

No. Because the conditions of the atmosphere 
vary. The density of the air often being less at 
the base so that a reverse current is produced. 
Air is liable to remain stagnant in pipes except 
when the atmospheric conditions are very pro- 
nounced, such as a strong wind or extreme cold 
weather. 

What conditions would promote a continuous 
upward current in drain ventilation ? 

When the inlet at a low level allows the free 
admission of air to naturally rise through the 



162 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

system of pipes to the outlet above the building. 
These conditions are best attained when the 
upper section of piping is heated enough to 
create a slight vacuum so that cooler air may re- 
place the heated air and thus create an upward 
and continuous current. 

DRAINAGE AND BACK VENT 
PIPES. 



What is a sewer? 

An underground channel for conveying the 
surface water and liquid refuse matter of cities 
and towns. 

What is a drain? 

"Drain" signifies any kind of channel for con- 
veying liquid, which may be open or closed in. 
Usually understood to be the pipe leading from 
a building to a sewer or cesspool. There is a 
difference between a house drain and a sewer. 
Sewers are the receivers of house drains. 

What is a soil pipe ? 

That part of the interior house pipes of metal, 
used to receive the discharge from fixtures such 
as water closets, etc. All pipe above the high- 
est fixture is termed the soil pipe vent, intended 
to admit air into the drainage system. 

What is a waste pipe? 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 163 

The smaller branch pipes of metal connected 
to the soil pipe and fixtures, such as a sink, 
wash bowl, etc. 

Of what material should drain, soil and waste 
pipes be made ? 

Earthenware, brass, lead, cast iron and wrought 
iron lead lined. 

What are the important requirements in regard 
to soil and waste pipes? 

Fall, size and kind of pipe, joints and venti- 
lation. 

What fall in a drain pipe is necessary to pro- 
duce a velocity of three feet per second and why 
is this velocity needed? 

%" per foot is needed to produce the nec- 
essary volume to float solids and scour or cleanse 
the interior walls of the pipe. 

What kind and size of pipes should be used 
for a building ? 

For outside pipe the salt glazed or vitrified 
pipe is preferable. Inside pipes should be cast 
iron under ground and brass or lead lined 
wrought iron above ground. The size of glazed 
pipe for ordinary buildings should be Q" and soil 
pipe not less than 4^^ in diameter, governed to a 
great extent by needs of building, but several 
small pipes are recommended in place of one of 
large diameter. 



164 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

How and of what material should joints be 
made on glazed and iron piijes? 

Joints on vitrified pipe should be made with 
Portland cement, hub well filled, allowed to set 
and interior thoroughly cleaned. Joint allowed 
to set before trench is filled. On cast iron pipe 
fill hub % with oakum, then pour full with 
heated lead, xls lead shrinks when cooling 
tamp lead firmly to fill hub tightly, as this makes 
the joint water and air tight. On brass or 
wrought iron pipe have thread well cut, leaded 
and screwed tightly. 

How are drain and soil pipes tested ? 

With water ^ a severe and sure test, air^ an even 
and reliable, smoke^ for old work is satisfactory, 
and oil of peppermint for a chemical test. 

In what lengths are cast iron pipes made, and 
why is extra heavy pipe recommended ? 

Five feet without hub. Extra thick pipe will 
stand caulking better and is less liable to con- 
tain imperfections when casting, su<5h as sand 
holes, etc. 

What should be the thickness and weight of 
2, 3, 4, 5 and 6'^ extra heavy soil pipe? 

2, 3 and 4:" should be % " thick, 5 and 6" should 
be 5-16" thick. 
The weight per foot of 

2" 3" 4" b" %" 

53^ lbs. 9% lbs. 13 lbs. 17 lbs. 20 lbs. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 165 

What is the important consideration in the 
, strength of cast iron pipes? 

i That it be cast even, of uniform thickness and 
free from flaws and sand holes. 

What is meant by sand holes and flaws? 

Holes caused by detached particles of sand, 
from core box or mold, mixed with the metal, 
thereby causing an imperfect flow of metal. 
Flaws are caused by bubbles of air or gas that 
generate in the molds and force themselves 
through the molten metal during the process of 
pouring the casting. 

How should soil pipes be supported, how 
much lead should be calculated to a joint and 
what is the least depth the ring of lead should 
be in caulking? 

Hangers, hooks, brackets or piers placed as 
near the hub as possible. The lead should be 
1 5^ ''deep and allow 12 oz. to each inch in di- 
ameter. 

Describe in detail how joints in cast iron pipes 
should be made and why, also how joints are 
caulked when pipes run in a wall recess ? 

Picked oakum twisted and forced into hub of 
pipe or fitting, with yarning tool to the depth of 
^'', then fill with molten lead by one continuous 
pour until hub is filled, then caulk with steel 
caulking tool to expand the lead, (as lead con- 
tracts in cooling). For horizontal pipe, use a 
gasket or rope to wind around the pipe to cover 



166 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

the open space between hub and pipe and leave 
a small opening on top to pour in lead. When 
in wall recess leave joint loose every few lengths, 
so that pipe may be turned, and for final joints 
cut wall to make room to work if necessary. 

What is a rust joint? How made, and when 
should it be used? 

Made of iron borings, used to conduct steam 
and hot water and by taking iron borings, free 
from oil or grease, 5 lbs., 1 oz. Sal Ammoniac, 1 
oz. Sulphur; mix dry first, then mix with water 
to a thick paste, place in hub of pipe and caulk 
same as lead. Apply oakum first. 

Why are putty, mortar and cement joints 
objectionable? 

Because they are porus and brittle and will 
crack and leak both liquids and gases ; mice eat 
putty and such joints are not reliable. 

Is there any objection to building a soil pipe 
into a wall ? 

^Yes. The wall is liable to settle and break the 
pipe ; it is inaccessible and difficult to repair. 

State chief sanitary requirements of soil and 
drain pipes? 

They must be air and water tight, all bends 
and branches have a proper sweep and provided 
with enough water to thoroughly flush the en- 
tire line; hav« no dead ends for sewer air to 
collect in, open above roof ; have proper grade 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 167 

and all joints carefully and substantially made. 

Should drains and soil pipes be vented and 
why? 

Yes. All drains should be arranged so that 
vapors formed in them will not be confined or 
produce pressure. To avoid this, extend pipes 
through roof and leave ends open. 

Where should the upper end of soil and vent 
pipes terminate ? 

Above the roof and well exposed to air currents 
and as far as possible from windows and air 
shafts. 

Is it a safe plan to ventilate a soil pipe into a 
chimney flue? 

No; unless chimney is made for that purpose 
only, as, when the chimney is cold or no fire, 
there is often a down draft, thus forcing sewer 
air into living room. Sewer air also loosens the 
mortar between the bricks, thus opsning the 
drain to living rooms. 

What is meant by a " dead end " on a drain, 
soil or waste pipe and why is it dangerous ? 

One not ventilated; it is dangerous because 
sewer air collects and produces pressure that un- 
seals trap and is also liable to corrode or eat 
through iron or lead pipe and thus enter the 
building. 

Why do soil and waste pipes need venting? 
1st, to prevent water being siphoned from trap ; 



168 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

2nd, to relieve and prevent air compression, or 
concentration of sevrer air; 3d, to prevent this 
air corroding the pipe. 

What influence has length of soil pipe to do 
with their ventilation ? 

Water falling, does so at the same speed as or- 
dinary bodies, less friction on sides of pipe, and 
air resistance which increases as it becomes more 
and more compressed. Long stacks acquire 
same velocity and air must enter through vent 
pipe at top, at same speed, to keep the seal in 
trap. 

What effect has length of vent pipe on the re- 
sistance to trap siphonage ? 

Where long pipes are used the air cannot pass 
through quickly enough to prevent a partial 
vacuum, and some air is drawn through trap, 
thus lowering if not wholly breaking the water 
seal. Thus with bends and long runs of vent 
pipe, the diameter must be enlarged in order to 
supply air as fast as needed, to prevent trap 
siphonage. 

The air of the vents should always exceed in 
sectional area that of the drains, as the vent 
pipes act as chambers for air, to supply any 
vacuum that may be formed, rather than to es- 
tablish currents to carry away offensive odors. 
Dependence is placed on proper flushing of the 
pipes to keep them clear of matters likely to de- 
compose. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 169 

What is meant by a vacuum ? 
An empty space ; a space in which there is 
neither water, air, or anything that we know of. 

With what velocity does air rush into a 
vacuum ? 

At the sea level, with 14.7 lbs. atmospheric 
pressure the velocity would be about 1.33 feet 
per second. The square root of the height in 
feet multiplied by 8.021 will give the velocity. 

How should vent pipes be run to avoid the 
water from condensation of vapors filling same ? 

Placed on an incline so that no traps will be 
formed in it and as near vertical as possible. 
Avoid return bends if possible as the balance of 
air is usually equalized at the crown of bend 
forming an aiir trap. 



^ ^ 



170 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

TRAPS AND SIPHONAGE. 



What is the object of a trap as used in plumb- 
ing? 

A trap is a crook or bend in a pipe which forms 
a pocket or depression for the retention of water. 
This water obstructs the passage of sewer air. 
The object is to prevent the passage into a build- 
ing, of foul air from the sewer or drain. 

Will the water in a trap absorb foul odors and 
emit them again ? 

Yes; to a certain extent if sufficient pressure 
exists. 

How is trap absorption avoided? 

By changing water in trap often, and by the 
use of a ventilation pipe that allows air to circu- 
late through it on the sewer side of water seal, 
thus preventing pressure. 

What is the object of a trap where the drain 
pipe enters the building? 

To prevent the entrance of sewer air into a 
house from the street sewer. 

Is there any other theory on this point ? 

Yes, that there should be no trap at front wall. 
Sewer air should not be confined but allowed to 
mingle and become diluted with fresh air. Also, 
if a continuous pipe extends from sewer through 
roof it relieves all pressure and the scouring 
force is not hindered. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 171 

What are the claims made for the intercepting 
trap ? 

One principal claim is that a contagious dis- 
ease in an adjoining building might be conveyed 
to the adjoining premises through the sewer con- 
nections. Another claim is that where no main 
drain trap is placed, dangerous communicable 
diseases are spread through the agency of a de- 
fect in the drainage system. Another claim is 
that it is unsafe Jto ventilate the public sewers 
through our private houses, as the roof openings 
are often below adjoining premises and the sewer 
air would enter windows above such openings. 

What is the object of extending a pipe from 
the outer air to the drain pipe just inside the in- 
tercepting trap ? 

To allow (or produce) an inward current of 
fresh air to pass through pipes, thus deoderizing 
the foul air and preventing the ultimate corro- 
sion of the material of which the pipe is com- 
posed. 

Is this method reliable and effective? 

The theory is correct as cold air should enter 
the inlet as the density of the air is greater at 
the ground level than at the roof. It has proven 
unreliable in many cases, owing to the fact that 
the present method not being intelligently in- 
stalled, and traps formed in the drain, below the 
ground level, the density of the moist air being 
as great or greater than the outside fresh air, 



172 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

prevents a movement of the air in the right di- 
rection, and then the fresh air inlet becomes an 
outlet for foul odors when the fixtures are dis- 
charged. 

Does it make any difference where this pipe 
enters a soil pipe, so long as it is inside the point 
where the trap is placed? 

It should connect with a branch as near trap as 
practicable, or that portion between it and trap 
will form a dead end and compiess the air. 

What causes a pressure from the sewer on the 
main trap ? 

Difference in temperature between sewer and 
house, snow and ice covering the opening in 
street man-hole, tide flowing in and sudden 
emptying of street sewer after heavy rain storm. 

Can difference in temperature between air in a 
sewer and in a drain pipe unseal trap ? 

Yes. If sewer is confined or has long dead end 
near trap. When open man-hole is near, it will 
not unseal trap. 

What is understood as the seal of a trap? 
How is a seal measured? What is considered a 
sufficient seal ? 

The depth of water from overflow point of out- 
let to the dip or tongue. The seal is measured 
from these points. A safe seal should be at 
least (3) three inches. 

Does a large body of water in a trap afford as 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 173 

much resistance to pressure from sewer as the 
depth of seal ? 

No. It is the depth of seal and not the 
amount. 

AVhat is the effect of a column of water passing 
through an upright pipe and completely filling 
it, when branches are connected ? 

It will create a vacuum and if traps are not 
vented will cause them to lose their water seal. 

If a drain pipe empties into a stream or on the 
surface of the ground and has no connection with 
sewer or cesspool, is a trap useful or desirable ? 

Yes; as foul air is generated, and when the 
pipe is of some length it is safer to trap it. 

When traps are emptied of water to prevent 
freezing, how can sewer air be excluded ? 

Fill traps with glycerine, as it will not fraeze 
or evaporate. 

What is an air lock ? 

The space in pipe, between two traps, where 
air is confined. 

How does it affect the flow of water ? 
It is like an air chamber and retards or stops 
the flow of water. It is an obstruction. 

Explain the reason for siphonage of traps and 
how it can be prevented. 

To siphon a trap, a part of the air is withdrawn 
by a descending column of water so that the 



174 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

atmo&pheric pressure is less on one side of the 
water seal than on the other and the atmospheric 
pressure will force out the water until it supplies 
the vacuum, thus making the air pressure the 
same on both sides. It is for this i^urpose that 
traps are vented, so that the vents may supply 
the air and not oblige the taking out of the 
water to get the air from the house side of the 
water seal. 

What is double trapping and its effects? 

One trap under fixture, the other on main 
drain. Its effect is to confine the bad air between 
them and impede the flow of water. 

What is a " by pass" in ventilation? 

When the waste pipes of several fixtures are 
so connected that they have a trap common to 
more than one of the fixtures, the attempt to 
ventilate the traps may produce an open path 
around some other trap into a room, thus letting 
sewer air into the dwelling. 

What are the points to be considered in venti- 
lating traps ? 

The vent pipe should be so connected that 
grease cannot choke it or iron scales close the 
bore of pipe. This air pipe should be of larger 
area than trap outlet so that an ample supply of 
air can be furnished when trap is discharged. 

What system of air vent pipes would be con- 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 175 

sidered adequate to supply the requisite amount 
of air in all or the majority of cases? 

Another air pipe of equal area to the main soil 
pipe stack, with separate connecting branches 
for each fixture. 

What are the essentials in a trap as us^d in 
plumbing ? 

Traps should be of such size as to entirely dis- 
place their contents each time a fixture is used, 
and a depth of seal that will not check the 
velocity of discharge, but loill resist back press- 
ure and evaporation to the greatest extent. 

What objection is brought in the use of 
"revent" pipes when attached to the crown of 
traps ? 

The crown of trap receives the upflow of the 
discharge and portions adhere, from time to 
time, until the vent becomes closed. When this 
time arrives the vent becomes useless. 

How can a vacuum be formed in a soil or waste 
pipe and how effect a trap seal ? 

A column of water falling through a vertical 
pipe will lessen the normal air pressure on the 
inside of pipe and the air pressure on the house 
side of trap seal being at such times greater than 
the interior resistance, has a tendency to replace 
the water seal with air and produce siphonage. 

What influence has evaporation on trap seals? 
Evaporation gradually lowers a trap seal and 



176 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

when seal is broken the trap is useless. A vent 
pipe usually hastens evaporation as an air current 
conveys water vapor readily. 

Should a trap be provided with a vent pipe? 
Yes. To furnish air to prevent siphonage, 
corrosion of metal and ventilation. 

How should a vent pipe be connected to a trap 
to prevent evaporation and chokage ? 

With trap connected on outlet with Y angle 
joint the flow of water is directed downward so 
that waste matter will not rise in vent and cause 
chokage. Evaporation is hastened when the vent 
pipe is connected over the water in body of trap. 
With vent pipe extended from waste line exten- 
sion the air current is one side and its action is 
less direct thus prolonging evaporation. 



^ 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 177 

GREASE TRAPS. 



What is the object of a grease trap? 

To prevent the accumulation of grease in the 
drain and soil pipe thus causing chokage, trouble 
and expense. The trap holds the grease, allow- 
ing it to collect, cool, and solidify, when it can 
be removed. 

Into what general classes can grease traps be 
divided? 

Two. First, those in which the grease is 
chilled until it solidifies by the air surrounding 
it, and second, by a water jacket surrounding 
the trap to cause the same effect. 

What is the general construction of a grease 
trap ? 

Inlet and outlet at base, with partition to check 
flow of grease, large area to hold accumulations, 
cleaning hand-hole and a relief pipe for gas to 
escape, in addition to regular back vent pipe. 

Where are grease traps usually required or 
needed most? 

In hotels, restaurants and eating houses. 

Which form or principle will produce the most 
satisfactory results, and why? 

The one with water jacket, because the water 
in the jacket absorbs heat from the water in the 
trap much more rapidly, thus chilling the grease 
much sooner. 



1T8 QUESTIO]JfS AND ANSWERS. 

BOILERS. 



Of what material are boilers usually made and 
how are they placed ? ;, 

Iron, galvanized; Copper, tinned on inner sur 
face. Placed either horizontally or upright, and 
arranged &o that proper connections may be 
made with heating apparatus. 

How should a boiler be attached to a range 
water back or heater to work effectively? 

The bottom coupling of boiler should attach to 
a pipe connected to the lower opening of water 
back and the upper opening of water back should 
be connected by a larger pipe to the side coup- 
ling of the boiler or reservoir. 

Explain the method or circulation in a water 
back, boiler and fixture pipes? 

The boiler being full and the fire in range 
started, the heat of the fire warms the water in 
the "front." Being made lighter by heat, and 
expanded, the water rises through side coupling 
of boiler to top of same. As the water in boiler 
is surrounded by a metallic shell, this surface 
radiates heat and the water constantly cools, 
and by the passage of the heated water through 
the boiler, the cold constantly descends. When 
water is drawn at any fixture it is cooled by pass- 
ing through the i3ipes, by radiation. 

To ensure an immediate supply of hot water at 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 179 

any fixture, the hot water pipe is extended be- 
yond each fixture, and a circuit pipe returned to 
the boiler, entering same through cold Water tube 
provided for such purpose, or connected to the 
cold supply pipe from boiler to water front out- 
side of boiler. 

What causes the rumbling sound in hot water 
pipes about range and boiler? 

Sediment in water front ; air space above outlet 
opening in front; stoppage of free circulation 
causes steam to form, when the cold water enter- 
ing front causes the steam to condense, forming 
a vacuum, thus causing a snapping or rumbling. 

What is the common cause of water front ex- 
plosions'? 

The stoppage of circulation causes steam to 
form rapidly, and when confined, an explosion 
must occur. 

When the water in a boiler is making steam 
rapidly, what effect will drawing off the hot 
water have? 

When cold water is admitted, the steam con- 
denses rapidly, causing a vacuum ; this causes an 
uneven or unbalanced atmospheric pressure and 
insures collapse. 

Is a collapse more liable to occur when the 
water pressure is light? 

Yes; as steam is formed more easily and less 
pressure is required to expel water from boiler. 



180 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

The expansive force of steam will more readily 
cause the water to leave the boiler and collapse 
is therefore more imminent. 

What are the usual safeguards against the 
collapse of a boiler? 

For a pressure boiler, a vacuum or check valve. 
For a tank job, an expansion pipe extended from 
hot water pipe over and into tank above water 
level. 

What is the object of a sediment cock ? 
It is the outlet for cleaning boiler and used to 
empty boiler for repairs. 

What is the object of an air hole near the upper 
end of tube in boiler ? 
To prevent boiler from siphoning. 

What is the object of a double boiler? 
To furnish heated water in the upper and lower 
parts of a building independent of each other. 

Is it necessary to connect both boilers with 
water back ? 

No; as the water in inside boiler is heated by 
convection from outer boiler. The outer one 
being connected to water front only. 

What kind of pipe should be used between the 
boiler and water front ? 

Cold water pipe may be either lead, brass or 
copper. Hot water pipe should be brass or 
copper, as they resist the effects of hot water best, 
are rigid and do not disintegrate. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 181 

Does a sag or trap in the hot water pipe make 
any difference in the heating or circulation ? 

Yes. Circulation is impeded and a slight ob- 
struction in pipe causes the rumbling sound so 
often heard in connection with boilers. 

What would you recommend in choosing a 
boiler for domestic use, the cistern or pressure 
pattern? Give reason for choice. 

The cistern pattern would be the most desira- 
ble, if properly piped, because the pressure is 
even and the stock would wear longer. The 
variable street pressure is not satisfactory as the 
strain is uneven and an earlier wearing out of 
material results. 



182 QUESTIONS -AND ANSWEKS, 

BATHS* 



What is a bathf'tiib or what is ^termed a bath ? 

A bath tub is a receptacle holding liquids for 
persons to plunge or wash their bodies. A vessel 
in which the whole or a'part of the person may 
be washed or bathed. : : .^ 

The word bath is also aipplied '-t^o any artificial 
cohtri Vance which is -to siifiiply thef place of a 
bath;" as a Bh<)we^^%ath^^ or an apparatus for 
applying water to" the body in the form of a 
shower ; a vapor bath, by steam, etc. - 

What styles of portable bath tubs are in gen- 
eral use ? 

Steel ; copper-lined, — Iron ; enameled with roll 
rims, — Marble and porcelain. 

What are the advantages and disadvantages of 
the kinds described? 

Steel clad, copper-lined are light and retain 
heat from hot water; being tinned, the tin soon 
wears off, when verdigris forms, which is danger- 
ous ; and the copper ig liable to become punct- 
ured with careless use. The tub is set up on 
legs and is cleanly. Iron, enameled, is strong, 
cleanly and serviceable, but does not retain heat 
from hot water well and in poor grades the 
enamel is liable to crack. Marble and porcelain 
are cleanly and the best for good work, but liable 
to fracture. 



QUESTIO]*^S AND ANSWERS. 183 

How should a bath be supplied? 

Through large supply pipes to avoid long wait- 
ing. Size of pipe % or finches. A combina- 
tion bath cock with rose sprinkler, makes a satis- 
factory bibb. _^ 

What are the sizes of wasjte pipes usually used 
for bath tubs? 

1/^? 1/^ and 2 inches. The larger the waste 
outlet the more quickly will the bath empty and 
less liability for scum and sediment to remain on 
the inner surface of tub, 

What precaution should be taken with the 
overflow from: a bath :tub ? 

See that it is properly trapped, and of suitable 
capacity. 

How should a trap be located that serves a 
bathtub? 

Keep trap from under tub and; avoid placing 
bact vent in a horizontal pos^ition, as the vent is 
liable to become choked and t^us become useless. 
Yent pipe should b^^'lijyright to a point above 
where it is possible-tojftll with waste matter by 
backing up,, when pij)e^rai;e choked. 

What' sanitary features shopid be observed in 
choosing and^settin^ albath tub:? l'^--^' ' ' 

Baths should be set up free irom all wOod work, 
with legs and roll rim, thus^ %,Wewing ?i-ee eircu- 
latton Of air at all pdifits. The roorn^ shMild 
always be well ventilated and no absorbent -ma- 



184 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

terial should be used in the room, on or about 
the tub. 

WATER CLOSETS. 



What requirements should a sanitary water 
closet possess ? 

It should be simple, neat and compact in de- 
sign, durable, of smooth material with ample 
standing water in bowl. All parts exposed to 
fouling should be thoroughly scoured, powerful, 
copious, yet noiseless flush from tank, securely 
trapped, its water seal visible and accessible, 
free from mechanism and economical in the use of 
water. 

What principles or patterns in closets are now 
on the market? 

The Hopper principle, consisting of the Short 
and Combination Hopper, Washout and Wash- 
down patterns. The Siphon, Pneumatic, Jet 
Siphon, and Triple Jet action. 

Describe the Short Hopper? 

It consists of a trap usually of iron with oval or 
square bowl clamped to trap. Joint between 
trap and bowl made with white lead putty and 
sometimes with rubber gasket. The bowl has a 
flushing or perforated rim and depends upon the 
flush and height of tank to wet and scour the 
interior surface properly. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 185 

Describe the Washout closet ? 

A flushing rim tank hopper with outlet front 
or back with a water bed containing a shallow 
pool of water so that soil will not be retained on 
the interior surface. Needs tank action to flush 
and expel contents. 

Describe a Washdown closet? 

It combines the short hopper and washout, with 
this difference; the body of trap is enlarged and 
the lower part of bowl also, so that a deep seal 
and enlarged water pool receives the soil ; thus 
the objection to the soil sticking to sides of bowl 
is overcome. It combines the water bed of the 
washout and the scouring down pour of the short 
hopper. 

Describe a siphon closet ? 

The siphon closet resembles in outward appear- 
ance the washout pattern but operates by unbal- 
ancing the atmospheric pressure by filling the 
outlet leg of closet with water, creating sufficient 
vacuum to overcome the air pressure on the drain 
side of water seal. Siphonic action is produced 
by shaping the outlet of trap so that the overflow 
of water drives out and excludes the air from 
outlet, which when filled with water, forms the 
long leg of siphon. 

How are siphon closets classified ? 

There are three general classes, jet siphon, 
pneumatic and semi-pneumatic. 



186 QUESTIONS A]^J) ^NSWER^. 

What effect has jet action on the water passa- 
ges and soil pipe? 

. In connection with siphonic action a wonder- 
ful cleansing and scouring action is produced, 
thoroughly cleaning the pipe. ,.,.;.:.:. : 

Where should a siphon closet h^ve its back air 
pipe connected, and why? "^-^ ; :, 

On lead bend below closet, because if connected 
above water level in siphon pipB, a vacuum 
would be hard to form, and the effective force 
used in discharging the fixture is cut off. A 
much larger flush pipe and quantity of water 
would be needed. 

How is the siphon closet superior to the wash- 
out or short hopper ? ■ 

From a sanitary stand point; 1st, the bowl 
holds a deep body of water, with large surface 
which prevents soil adhering to walls of closet. 

2nd. The etepth of water in bowl makes it 
difficult for air to escape from the sewer to room, 
especially wi'th a pnetiniatic closet. 
- Bd; The outlet of trap is visible and if the 
water level is miaintained the bowl contains 
enough water to deodorize faecal matter ^nd pA- 
yents the walls of the closet from becoming foul. 

4th. The jet action is so powerful that the 
bowl contents are ejected with great force and a 
thorough cleansing 4s produced. _>:- li 11 

What especial : merifcis cl?iimed' -for the: pneu- 
matic siphon? i ■':':-: I .■■^- . I: L j;:: v^':::a y 



QUESTIONS AJJI) ANSWERS. 187 

Because of the two trap^ it requires an abso- 
lutely air tight joint between them to effect a 
satisfactory working of the el oset. The failure 
of this closet to work properly, is evidence that 
an imperfect joint exists between the traps. 
The lower trap in such a case then becomes a 
safe-guard against the entrance of sewer air. 

What is the operation of the Semi -Pneumatic 
closet? 

It is a combination of the pneumatic and 
siphon jet principles. The flush water divides 
immedia4:ely after entering the closet, part going 
to the siphon jet and the other to the flush rim 
of the bowl, except that the part of the water 
which operates the jet passes through a con- 
tracted. nozzle. This nozzle has a trap to prevent 
air getting into the flush pipe, from space 
between the two traps. The trap helps to spray 
the water similar to an injector, by which action 
the air between the traps is exhausted with the 
water into soil pipe. Exhausting the air between 
the traps is the feature similar to pneumatic 
closets, while the jet action is the counterpart of 
what is embodied in the siphon jet closets, with 
the exception of the trapped spraying nozzle 
which serves in conjunction with the pneumatic 
feature. 



What general principle should be followed in 

lecting a water closet? 

Those closets that retain a body of water in the 



188 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

basin are considered the best in ratio to tlie 
water surface exposed and also its depth, as soil 
is at once immersed, thus preventing the escape 
of foul odors. 

What is the object of a local or seat vent on a 
water closet ? 

To convey foul air from space about the inter- 
ior of the bowl while the closet is in use, and to 
assist in keeping the air changed in the water 
closet apartment. 

What is a good height for a cistern above a 
closet and why should it never be used for boiler 
supply ? 

About 6 feet to ensure a through flush ; 
because the flush pipe allows the foul air from 
closet to rise to tank ; this air is absorbed by the 
water, contaminating and rendering it unfit for 
household purposes. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWEBS. 189 

SINKS. 



Of what material are kitchen sinks made? 

Cast iron, plain, galvanized and enameled. 
Steel, painted and enameled, Soapstone, Crockery 
and Slate. 

How should a kitchen sink be fitted and con- 
nected? 

With strainer, fastened, trap, (preferably a 
grease interceptor) with back air pipe so attached 
that grease cannot close bore of pipe. Ample 
water supply through compression bibb, (both 
hot and cold.) Set up open (28 or 30 inches from 
floor) on legs or brackets; drainer and back 
spatter board of marble, slate or soapstone, so 
fitted that moisture cannot collect in crevices and 
breed vermin. 

How are waste connections made ? 

On iron sinks, with lead pipe, by means of 
collar (slipped over pipe) that has ears or lugs to 
allow bolts to hold in position. On steel sinks 
the fixture is made with a solder union fitted for 
both lead and iron pipe. On crockery, slate or 
soapstone, a special plug is made for fitting to 
fixture with lock nut and solder coupling. 

What are the merits or demerits of the different 
materials as used for a sink? 

Plain iron sinks rust easily, but with care when 
new, this may be obviated by oiling the surface 



190 QUESTION'S AND ANSWERS. 

before water is allowed to enter it. Cast iron 
cracks easily, then no reinjedy. 

Galvanized iron sinks are fairly durable but 
the coating wears away, leaving them no better 
than plain iron. 

Steel sinks cannot be broken, but when painted 
or galvanized, after short usage, the coating is 
eaten away. When enameled, they are quite 
durable, unless, being so light, extreme heat 
would crack the enamel. Plain steel sinks wear 
well. 

Soapstone is soft and crumbles but is quite 
durable and is less liable to cause the breaking 
of dishes on account of the surface being less 
harsh than slate. 

Crockery is hard and glazed so that it is non- 
absorbent, but dishes are readily broken and 
extreme heat or careless use is liable to "fracture. 

Slate is hard, non-absorbent, and is considered 
very durable. The texture of the stone is such 
that it is tenacious and not easily fractured. 

Of what material are pantry sinks usually made 
and how installed? 

Of copper, well tinned, square or oval, enam- 
eled steel and crockery. Often provided with slate 
or marble drainers, and covered with rubber mats 
to prevent breakage of crockery. The preferred 
setting, for sanitary reasons, should be with slate 
or marble drainer, shallow sink, provided with 
standing overflow and \% " waste, provided' with 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWP^RS. 191 

grease trap. Supply through tall faucets to allow 
the use of pitchers. 

What objections exist when wooden drainers 
are used about sinks ? 

With wood work exposed to alternate wetting 
and drying, the wood rapidly decays and also 
absorbs and retains any filthy matter that may 
have been on the dishes used. This filth attracts 
vermin that are difiicult to exterminate. 

Where is a slop sink needed and of what 
material should it be made? 

N'eeded in hotels, apartment houses and ofiice 
buildings. While often made of cast iron enam- 
eled, the vitrified stone ware are considered the 
most sanitary on account of their non-absorbent 
properties. Enameled iron shrinks and cracks 
and becomes quite objectionable when cracked. 

How should a slop sink be installed? 

No wood work, flushing rim, tank supply; also 
faucets for hot and cold water if desired ; waste 
at least 2'^ in diameter, with firmly fastened large 
strainer; trap back vented and no part left so 
that filth can collect about it. 



192 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

LAVATORIES. 



How should a lavatory or wash bowl be Id- 
stalled? 

Set up about 30 inches from floor with marble 
slab and countersunk face, bevel or O. G. edge, 
1%" thick, on brackets or legs, with high backs. 
Bowl may be either round, square or oval ; should 
have large outlet, 1% to 1% '', and well trapped, 
also trap back vented so that air pipe should not 
act as an overflow. Hot and cold supply through 
Yq " pipe and compression basin cocks. Basin 
clamped to marble slab of Italian, Tennessee, or 
any hard marble with all pipes exposed. 

What grades of marble are commonly used for 
plumbing slabs and their adaptability ? 

American^ white medium texture, easily stains 
and absorbs oily or greasy matter readily. 
Italian^ mottled veins, hard texture, stains, but 
not as easily as American, and obtains a good 
polish. Tennessee^ in colors only, very hard and 
will not stain or absorb oily matter. Considered 
best for plumbers' use. 

How is a wash bowl measured and what sized 
opening is made in marble? 

Measured on outside rim of flange, or market 
size. Opening in slab is made two inches smaller 
as the flange is usually one inch wide. When 
ordering a marble slab, the market size of bowl 
should be given. State if one or two cock holes 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 193 

are wanted, chain stay or other patented appli- 
ance, and how many basin clamp holes needed. 

What style of overflow is recommended, and 
why? 

The old style of common or patent overflow is 
so seldom used that occasional use does not keep 
it clean, and soap, hair, etc., accumulate, chok- 
ing the passage, and the construction is such 
that it is difiicult to clean. Several styles of 
overflow more or less complicated are on the mar- 
ket, but the simplest and most effective is the 
siphon overflow, as it has no mechanical parts 
and the siphonic action is powerful, leaving both 
waste and overflow clean. 

What should be observed in choosing a wash 
basin, from a sanitary point of view ? 

Large outlet, no concealed fouling space, over- 
flow as large as outlet, no mechanism. 

URINALS. 



How should urinals be fitted up, and where 
are they not advisable ? 

They should be set in a stall with slate parti- 
tions and floor of same material. Floor should 
have grooved trench to allow the collection of 
drippings. The urinal proper should be lipped 
of vitrified earthenware, supplied from an auto- 
matic flush tank, or a constant supply of running 



194 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

water. Each urinal should be separately trapped 
and vented. The bowls of this fixture should be 
made to retain a body of water and preferably 
operated by siphonic action. Urinals should not 
be placed in private houses. 

How high should a urinal be set from floor to 
lip? 

22 inches. 

What method of ventilation is beneficial for a 
urinal ? 

Vacuum induced current, drawn into and across 
body of water so as to avoid any odor coming 
into room. 

What pattern is considered the most sanitary 
for a urinal, and why ? 

The sij)hon, because the bowl holding a shallow 
seal of water, the urine nut coming in direct con- 
tact with the porcelain, makes it possible to 
keep the fixture cleanly and free from odor, 
without the constant care and attention hereto- 
fore necessary in keeping the usual pattern even 
in an endurable condition. The siphonic action 
is effective, regular and automatic. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 195 

LAUNDRY TUBS. 



Of what material are laundry tubs made, and 
which are advisable to use. 

Wood, slate, soapstone, granite or cement and 
earthenware. Soapstone, eaithenware and slate 
are non-absorbent and therefore considered the 
most desirable. 

How should laundry tubs be fitted for use ? 

On metal legs or frames, provided with large 
outlets, fixed strainer, properly trapped with 
deep seal, back vented and provided with ade- 
quate supply of hot and cold water. Supply 
should have stop cocks when fixture is set in an 
exposed place. 

VALVES. 



What pattern valves are there now in the mar- 
ket and giving good results ? 

The Cage, with standing overflow. The Si- 
phon, with whole curved pipe lifted from seat. 
The Hinged valve attached to side of siphon 
tube rigidly fastened in tank. The solid 
weighted valve with spindle for guidance. The 
float or pneumatic valve with a hollow cylinder 
to contain air to cause a slow closing action of 
the valve, etc. 



196 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

TANKS. 



What are tanks for ? 

To contain and furnish water for the supply of 
fixtures in buildings. 

How are tanks usually supplied ? 
By pump, hydraulic ram or gravity pressure 
from private or public water works. 

Of what are tanks usually made ? 

Of wood, lined with tinned sheet copper or 
sheet lead; also of iron either cast or wrought; 
wood and slate are also frequently used. 

What is the best lining for a tank for a house 
from which water for drinking and cooking is 
used? 

A wooden tank lined with tinned sheet copper. 
Those lined with zinc or lead are prohibited for 
domestic use in New York City. 

Are safes advisable under tanks in buildings ? 

Always, except when tanks are placed on roofs ; 
then they are not needed. Especially needed 
under iron tanks to carry off water of condensa- 
tion from bottom and sides. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 197 

Where should the safe overflow pipe be carried ? 
To an open sink, properly trapped and vented, 
but never into a soil or waste pipe. 

Where should the tank overflow discharge? 

For a tank on roof the overflow may discharge 
on roof; for tank below roof, it should discharge 
into a sink or other water supplied receptacle 
that is properly trapped. 

Why should a tank room be thoroughly ven- 
tilated? 

Because water absorbs foul gases and odors 
and thus becomes unfit for use. 

How can this be proved in a simple manner? 

By placing a pail of water in a newly painted 
room ; the smell of the paint will decrease, and 
when examined, an oily scum will be found upon 
the water. 

What should also be kept in mind in regard to 
contaminated water? 

That possibly it might be taken for domestic 
purposes, therefore dangerous. 

Is it advisable to cover tanks? 
It is ; and provision should also be made for 
ventilation. 

Should a water closet tank and house or boiler 
tank be one and the same ? 

No. A separate tank for closet, as foul odors 
are likely to rise through the flush pipe and be 



198 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

absorbed by the water in tank, thus rendering it 
unfit for domestic use. 

Of what size should a tell-tale pipe be and 
where run ? 

3/8 to 3^ inch and run to a point where the dis- 
charge of water could be readily seen by one 
operating the pump. 

What is the advantage of a large pipe between 
pump and tank ? 

There is less friction; therefore the pump 
works easier and to better advantage. 

What proportion should the overflow pipe bear 
to the supply pipe ? 

Its area should be at least double that of the 
supply pipe? 

How do tanks get dirty and what ill effects 
come from an unclean tank ? 

From sediment in water and not being properly 
protected. Such water is unfit for use, even for 
washing. Sanitary experts admit that a great 
deal of sickness and disease is directly traceable 
to impure drinking water. 

How are the contents of a square tank esti- 
mated ? 

Get area of base by multiplying length by 
breadth; this amount by the height, all inches; 
divide this result by 231, the number of inches 
in a standard U. S. gallon and the quotient will 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 199 

be the number of gallons contained in the tank. 

How are the contents of a cylindrical tank 
obtained? 

Square the diameter, multiply by the height 
in inches and divide by 294 the number of inches 
in a gallon. 

How is the lateral pressure of a liquid in a tank 
estimated ? 

Get area of sides, multiply this result by one- 
half the depth and this amount by 62.32, the 
number of pounds in a cubic foot. 



^ ^ 



200 plumbers' dictionary. 

PLUMBERS' DICTIONARY. 



Air Chamber. A cavity containing air to act 
as a spring for equalizing the flow of a liquid in 
hydraulic machines. 

The object is to avoid the jar which occurs 
when a column of water in motion is suddenly 
arrested. It is intended to equalize the flow of 
water from a reciprocating pump. Air, however, 
is gradually absorbed by the water. 

Adjutage. The spout or nozzle of a funnel. 
A tube, funnel shaped, attached to the discharg- 
ing orifice of a vessel in order to obviate the 
resistance to the discharge incident to the con- 
traction of the fluid vein. This resistance may 
amount to 0.45 of the whole theoretical delivery. 

The addition of a funnel shaped tube to the 
opening will cause a greater discharge, the head 
and vertical area remaining the same. 

Aqueduct. A channel for conveying water. 

Alloy. — Chem. Combination of metals with 
each other are called alloys. 

Alloys are generally more tenacious but less 
malleable and ductile than might be expected 
from their composition. 

Fusible Alioy, usually of lead, tin, and bismuth, 
compounded in such definite proportions as to 
melt at a given temperature. 

Ammonia — Chem. A colorless gas, with a 



plumbers' dictionary. 201 

peculiar pungent odor. It is a combination of 
three volumes of hydrogen and one of nitrogen, 
but it cannot be formed directly from these gases. 

It is a product of the decomposition of animal 
matters containing nitrogen. 

One volume of cold water absorbs 670 volumes 
of ammonia, or nearly half of its weight. 

Antimony. A metal of a bluish white color. 
It is so brittle that it is easily reduced to powder. 
It melts at 842°. Type metal is an alloy of lead 
and antimony ; on account of its expanding at 
the moment of solidifying (a property possessed 
by neither metal separately), it takes a very 
sharp impression of the mold. 

Atmosphere — Air. An envelope of gaseous 
matter surrounding any substance, generally 
used in reference to the earth's atmosphere. 

The true composition of the atmosphere was 
not known until 1774, when Lavoisier stated that 
it consisted of two gases, one of which was a sup- 
porter of life and combustion, and the other the 
reverse. 

The former is known as oxygen and the latter 
he called nitrogen and showed that the atmos- 
phere contained about one-fifth of its volume of 
oxygen, and four-fifths of nitrogen. It has also 
a little carbonic acid. 

Though invisabJe, except in large masses, and 
without smell or taste, yet it is a substance pos- 
sessing all the principal attributes of matter: 



202 PLUMBEES' DICTIONARY. 

being impenetrable, ponderable, compressible, 
dilatable, and its particles are operated on, like 
those of other bodies, by chemical action. 

Air currents, or winds are caused by the varia- 
tions taking place continually in the condition 
of the air, as respects heat, moisture and rarity. 

When the air over a given place becomes 
rarified, that is vrhen the atmospheric pressure 
there becomes relatively small, that region at 
once becomes a center toward which inflowing 
air currents direct themselves. 

According to the nature, extent, and continu- 
ance of this diminution of pressure, the nature 
of the resulting air current varies within very 
wide limits. 

The higher we go into the air, the colder the 
temperature becomes, because we move farther 
out of the range of the earth's reflected heat. 

Basin. A water vessel. A place for washing. 
A lavatory. A hollow vessel or dish to hold 
water for washing, and for various other uses. 

Bath Tub. A receptacle holding liquid for per- 
sons to plunge or wash their bodies. A vessel in 
which the whole or a part of the person may be 
washed or bathed. 

The word bath is also applied to supply the 
place of a bath, as a shower bath, or an apparatus 
for supplying water to the body in the form of a 
shower, usually a stream distributed by a strainer 



plumbers' dictionary. 20:3 

or a vapor bath by steam. All being intended 
for the health of a person. 

Bibb. A faucet having a bent down nozzle : 
a bibb cock. A faucet or rotary valve, usually 
taking its name from its peculiar use, as self- 
closing or compression, etc. 

Blow Pipe. A tube through which a current of 
air is forced, in order to direct a flame and con- 
centrate its heat at a particular spot. The blow 
pipe is used in soldering metals. When a stream 
of air is blown through it into a gas, oil or spirit 
flame, a long, narrow dart of flame is produced. 
It is very eflScient whenever it is required to sub- 
ject a small body to a strong, intense heat. 

Boiler. A strong metallic vessel, usually of 
wrought iron plates or copper, in which heated 
water is stored to be distributed to the plumb- 
ing fixtures in a building. A reservoir forming 

a permanent attachment to the stove or heater. 

Brass. An alloy of copper and zinc, of a 
yellow color, usually containing about one-third 
of its weight of zinc : but the proportions vary. 

It is more fusible than copper and not as 
liable to tarnish: it is malleable when cold but 
not so when heated. 

Branch. Any part extended from the main 
body of a thing. In plumbing, a pipe or metal 
connection extended from the main line of pipe. 



204 PLUMBEKS' DICTIONARY. 

Burning. Joining metals by melting their 
adjacent edges, or heating the edges and run- 
ning into the intermediate space some molten 
metal of the same kind. 

The superior quality of the burning process 
arises from the fact that the joint will withstand 
the same heat as the body of the article. 

It is liable to be stronger as the article joined 
has more tenacity than when soldered. 

The article burned together being homogene- 
ous, the parts expand and contract evenly by 
changes in temperature; the solders have a 
greater range of expansion by given changes of 
temperature than the metals they connect. 

The solders oxidize more or less freely than 
the metals they connect, and establish galvanic 
circuits which destroy the integrity of the joint ; 
especially in the presence of heat, moisture or 
acids. 

As an instance, the leaden vessels or tanks for 
acids, cannot profitably be united with tin solder, 
as the acid acts so freely on the tin. 

This is now performed by burning together^ the 
heat being applied by the airo-hydrogen blow 
pipe. 

In burning^ a heat is required sufficient to melt 
the original metal, and a flux is seldom used. 

In soldering^ a lower heat is used and a more 
fusible metal employed, assisted by a flux. 

By-Pass. When the water pipes of several fix- 



plumbers' dictionary. 205 

tures are so connected that they have a trap 
common to more than one of the fixtures, the 
attempt to ventilate the traps may produce an 
open path around some other trap into a room, 
thus forming a ^'by pass. " 

Capillary. The term capillary is from the 
Latin capillus, a hair. Kesembling a hair, fine, 
minute, small in diameter. 

Capillary attraction or repulsion, the cause 
which determines the ascent or descent of a fluid 
in a tube above or below the level of the sur- 
rounding fluid. Generally an epithet applied 
to things on account of their hair like fineness. 
This is probably only a form of cohesive attrac- 
tion. The power of capillary attraction is mani- 
fested in a variety of common occurrences. 

Bread dipped in water, the whole is moistened ; 
towels, lamp wicks or string. Frequently the 
cause of trap seals being broken. Cohesion and 
capillary attraction are the attraction of mole- 
cules. The first operates when the molecules of 
a body are attracted towards each other: the sec- 
ond when the molecules of a liquid are attracted 
by those of bodies adjacent to them. 

Caulking — Plumbing, The process of filling 
the hub of a cast iron pipe by filling with oakum 
and lead, being driven in with a caulking chisel. 
The oakum and lead are caulked separately. 

Cement. A uniting composition which is 



206 PLUMBEES' DICTIONARY. 

plastic when applied, but hardens in place. 
Hydraulic cement is made from argillaceous 
limestone, the presence of the alumina conferr- 
ing the power of hardening under water. The 
Portland cement of England, is made of chalk 
and clay from the valley of the Medway. 

Chabcoal. Coal made by charring wood 
under turf or in other circumstances to exclude 
air. Wood coal. 

Compasses. An instrument for describing 
circles, measuring figures, etc., consisting of two 
pointed branches or legs, usually joined at the 
top by a rivet on which they move. 

Cistern. An artificial reservoir or receptacle 
for holding water or other liquids. 

Tanks or cisterns have always been very com- 
mon in lands subject to occasional abundant sup- 
ply, with intervals of drouth. 

The modern cistern used in houses when the 
water supply is intermittent, has a main service 
pipe provided with ball cock, house distribution 
pipe, and standing waste pipe or overflow to 
allow excess of water to run off or to allow the 
cistern to be emptied for cleaning. 

Coupling. A contrivance for connecting the 
parts of a machine, pipes, etc. 

Clamp. Something that fastens or binds. In 
plumbing a basin clamp is attached to the marble 



plumbers' dictionary. 207 

slab and fastened to support or bind the bowl or 
basin. Also, a band of brass or other metal bent 
so that by passing around or over a pipe it will be 
supported. Sometimes called clip or clips. 

Cock — Air Cock. A faucet so attached to a 
pipe that upon opening, confined air is allowed 
to escape. 

Ball Cock. A faucet which is opened or closed 
by means of a ball floating on tlie surface of the 
water in a tank, allowing the cock to remain 
open until the water has attained a certain 
height, when it is closed by means of a rod con- 
nected with the rising ball, falling again as 
water is withdrawn. It constitutes an automatic 
arrangement for maintaining the water level. 
It is useful when the supply is constant, and the 
demand intermittent. 

Basin Cock. A faucet for regulating the flow 
of water into a basin, bowl, or lavatory. Some 
operate by turning, partially or wholly unclosing 
the mouth of the supply pipe. Others operate 
by vertical pressure on a button or lever, thus 
depressing a spring valve and opening the water 
way ; the pressure being relieved the flow ceases. 
Some are called compression, others lever pat- 
terns. 

Hopper Cock. A valve either self-closing or of 
the compression pattern, for hopper water closets 
usually attached to street supply direct. 



208 plumbers' dictionary. 

Two-way Cock, A faucet or stop cock through 
which water may be distributed to each of two 
branches; to either of them separately, or be 
entirely shut off. 

Stop Cock, A faucet in a pipe to open or 
close the passage. Usually one with a plug and 
lever handle although compression patterns are 
common. 

Conduit. A pipe or passage, usually covered, 
for conducting water, etc. Generally pipes of 
wood, iron, etc. 

Copper. Name derived from the latin cuprium 
corrupted from Cyprian, the isle of Cyprus, where 
the metal was originally found. 

It is of a pale red color, very hard, tough and 
elastic. It expands when solidifying and is a 
good conductor of electricity. 

Copper Bolt. A piece of copper riveted to 
an iron shank or made to swing on a swivel joint, 
provided with a suitable handle. It is used in 
soldering. If not previously tinned, heat to a 
dull red, file to a clean metallic surface; then 
rub immediately with resin or sal-ammoniac 
together with a few drops of solder. When com- 
pletely coated wipe clean and the tool is ready 
for use. 

DiSENFECTOR. An apparatus for disseminat- 
ing a gas, vapor, or fine spray for the purification 



plumbers' dictionary. 209 

of the air and the counteraction of contagious 
influences. 

The modes vary: Atomizers for spraying; 
vessels in which gases are made by chemical 
action ; vapors generated by the heat of lamps 
placed beneath vessels containing the ingredi- 
ents; tray in which the materials are exposed to 
the ordinary currents of air ; particles for burn- 
ing; earth and charcoal for absorbing. 

Disinfectant. A substance that is capable 
of neutralizing whatever may produce infection : 
effluvia from drains, garbage, vaults, etc. 

Among disinfectants are chlorine, chloride of 
lime, carbolate of lime, carbolic acid, chloride of 
zinc, sulphurous acid fumes, roasting coffee, etc. 

The most powerful disinfectants are chlorine, 
in the form of chloride of lime, and carbonic 
acid in solution. 

Drain. A sewer, a pipe covered in to remove 
surface or waste water. A pipe from sewer to 
house in modern plumbing. 

Subsoil Brain, A pipe or series of pipes laid 
below the soil to accumulate surplus water and 
drain to some convenient point, to reclaim other- 
wise unprofitable land. An under drain. In 
plumbing, these pipes are laid about a building 
below the level of the cellar to collect water or 
prevent its entrance to avoid dampness. 



210 plumbers' dictionary. 

Drainage. The method of conveying water 
from the soil by means of closed drains or 
trenches — usually understood as closed drains. 

The system of drains and their operation, by 
which water is removed from towns, etc. 

The system of collecting and disposing of house 
excrement and waste from towns, lands, etc., — 
more properly called sewerage. 

Drain Pipe. Clay pipe known as drain tile, 
laid beneath the surface of the soil, to carry off 
superfluous water. Drain tiles of many forms, 
and made of baked earthenware. Some are slip 
glazed and some, are salt glazed or vitrified. The 
vitrified are the best. 

Earthenware. Made of earth, burnt or 
baked clay. The change wrought in clay, sand, 
and flint by the ceramic and vitrifying process is 
wonderful. Trenton, N. J., claims to rank as the 
chief manufacturing center of this industry in 
crockery, and Akron, Ohio, for drain tile — glazed 
or vitrified. ^ 

Elbow. An abrupt angle. The junction of 
two parts having a bent joint. 

Evaporation. The formation of vapor at the 
surface of a liquid, the opposite of ebullition, 
which signifies the formation of vapor within the 
mass of a liquid. The vapor and the fluid from 
which it rises, are always of the same tempera- 
ture. 



plumbers' diction aky. 211 

Faucet. A form of valve or cock in which a 
spigot or plug is made to open or close an aper- 
ture in a portion which forms a spout or pipe for 
the discharge or passage of a fluid. 

Beer Faucet. For drawing certain descriptions 
of beer it is desirable to foam it, which is done 
when the beer has not life enough of its own, by 
means of a piston which ejects air along with the 
beer into the glass or pitcher. As the piston 
descends, air is ejected at the central aperture, 
mixing with the beer which passes out at the 
annular orifice around the air opening. 

Self-closing Faucet. A faucet having a valve 
which is held down to its seat by a spring to pre- 
vent the escape of liquid, and is raised by means 
of a lever when liquid is to be drawn. 

Ferrule. A short tube or thimble made 
usually of brass or lead, used by plumbers Ib 
connecting lead with cast iron pipe. 

Filter. A vessel, chamber, or reservoir 
through which water or other liquid is passed to 
arrest matters mechanically suspended therein. 
A cistern having a permanent chamber which has 
filtering material intervening between the supply 
and discharge. 

Filtration. The process by which a liquid is 
freed from solid bodies intermixed with it. or 
from any impurities which it holds in suspension. 



212 plumbers' dictionary. 

by passing it through filtering paper, sand, char- 
coal, or a porous kind of stone, etc. 

Float. The hollow ball, either of metal or 
glass, of a self-acting faucet, which floats upon 
the surface of the water in a cistern, rising to 
regulate the supply. 

Flushing. To turn on a sudden and copious 
dash of water, as in flushing a sewer or water 
closet to cleanse it. 

Flux. A salt, added to assist the fusion of a 
mineral or metal. The term given to any sub- 
stance employed in the arts which facilitates the 
fusion of the metal. 

Flue. A passage, constructed in a building, 
for carrying off smoke, gas, etc. An air passage, 
as for ventilating a room, etc. 

Fluid. A body whose particles move easily 
among themselves and yield to the least force 
impressed and which when that force is removed, 
recovers its previous form. Capable of flowing. 
Water, air and steam are fluids. 

Force — Physics, Any cause which can move 
a body, change its motion, or keep it at rest 
when other forces are acting upon it. 

In statics, force is synonymous with pressure, 
and is measured by comparison with a unit of 
weight; thus a statical force is usually described 
as a pressure of many pounds. 

In dynamics, a force is that which produces or 



plumbers' dictionary. 213 

changes motion, and is measured by the velocity 
it can impart to a given mass in a given time. 

The pressure in this case is termed the moving 
force. A force which acts continually on a body, 
so as to accelerate its motion, is termed an accel- 
erating force. 

Fountain. An upward jet of water, natural 
or artificial. 

Fountains are of every form and variety, from 
the simple spring with its natural basin, to the 
most elaborate structure for the display or 
supply of water. 

Modern fountains are for the most part entirely 
ornamental. This arises from the modern mode 
of distributing water in pipes through the 
houses, making the street fountains to a great 
extent useless. It is found, however, that town 
populations — both man and beast — require some 
public supplies of water, and these are now 
largely supplied by numerous drinking fountains 
which are being erected in all our principal 
cities. 

Fusion. The liquefaction of a solid body by 
means of heat, such as metals, etc. 

Fusing Point. Different substances, when 
heated fuse at very different temperatures, which, 
however, are the same for the same substances, 
if the external pressure remains constant. The 



214 



temperature at which fusion commences, is 
termed the fusing point. 

Copper fuses at 1.742° 
Brass '' ^' 1.652° 

Zinc ** '* .773°- 

Lead '' '' .617° 

Bismuth " '* .500° 
Tin u i^ .428° 

FiiiCTiON. That resistance to motion which 
arises from the roughness of surfaces and the 
presence of air or water. It is one of the passive 
resistances to motion, preventing the bodies from 
sliding upon one another, and depending on the 
force with which the bodies are pressed together. 

Galena or Blue Lead. Native sulphurate 
of lead; from ^^eo to shine. The principal ore 
from which the metal, lead, is extracted. It is 
of a shining, bluish gray color. Mineral, 86.57 
per cent, lead, 13.43 per cent, sulphur. 

Gallon. The U. S. gallon contains 231 cubic 
inches, 294 cylindrical inches, or 8.33 pounds. 

Gas. Any permanent elastic aerial fluid 
whether produced by chemical experiments or 
evolved in natural processes. Gases and liquids 
have several properties in common, thus in both, 
particles are capable of moving: both are com- 
pressible, though in very different degrees. In 
density there is a great difference ; water which 
is a type of liquids, is 770 times as heavy as air, 



215 



the type of gaseous bodies, while under a press- 
ure of one atmosphere. 

The property by which gases are distinguished 
from liquids is their tendency to indefinite ex- 
pansion. Matter assumes the solid, liquid or 
gaseous forms, according to the relative strength 
of the cohesive and repulsive forces exerted 
between their particles. 

In liquids these forces balance; in gases repul- 
sion preponderates. By the aid of pressure and 
of very low temperature, the force of cohesion 
may be so far increased in all gases that they are 
converted into liquids. Oxygen, nitrogen and 
hydrogen are the hardest to liquify. On the 
other hand, heat, which increases the force of 
repulsion, converts liquids, such as water, 
alcohol and ether into the aeriform state, in 
which they obey all the laws of gases. This 
aeriform state of liquids is known by the name 
of vapor, while gases and bodies which, under 
ordinary temperature and pressure, remain in the 
aeriform state. 

Glazing. The transparent coating which 
covers the surface of pottery and is composed 
chiefly of lead and silex. After the ingredients 
are ground together, they are calcined with a 
moderate heat and when cold reduced to a pow- 
der, which is tempered with water and laid on 
with a brush. The violent heat of a furnace 
soon transforms this coating into a perfect glass. 



216 plumbers' dictionary. 

Hanger. That by which a thing is suspended. 
In plumbing, a metal rod or flat band attached 
to a timber or some part of a building, to sup- 
port pipes, etc. 

Heat. The term heat is not only used to ex- 
press a particular sensation, but also to describe 
that particular state or condition of weather 
which produces that sensation. Heat communi- 
cated to a substance produces, in general, three 
kinds of effects. 

First, an increase of temperature and expansive 
pressure. Second, a change of volume, nearly 
always an increase. Third, a molecular change, 
as from the solid to the liquid, or from the liquid 
or solid to the gaseous state. 

The heat which produces the first kind of 
effect is known as sensible heat, and makes the 
body hotter. In the second and third kinds of 
effects, heat disappears and becomes latent^ but 
may be reproduced by reversing the change 
which caused it to disappear. 

Heat — Radiated. That is, it moves through 
space, like light, in all directions. 

Bodies possess this power of radiation in 
different degrees; and it appears, the more 
highly polished the surface the less is the radia- 
tion. 

Heat can be transmitted from one body to 
another without altering the temperature of the 
intervening medium. 



plumbers' dictionary. 217 

If we stand in front of a fire, we experience a 
sensation of warmth which is not due to the 
temperature of the air, for if a screen be inter- 
posed the sensation immediately disappears, 
which would not be the case if the surrounding 
air had a high temperature. Therefore bodies 
can send out rays which excite heat, and which 
penetrate through the air without heating it. 

Heat thus propagated is said to be radiated 
and is called radiant heat. 

Heat — Latent. Latent heat is the heat which is 
absorbed by bodies in passing from one state to 
another, but it does not manifest itself by pro 
ducing an increase of temperature, and is on this 
account called latent heat. 

Heat — Specific. Specific heat is the quantity of 
heat required to raise the temperature of a body, 
of a given weight, 1°, the unit of measure, being 
the quantity required to raise the same weight of 
water, to the same temperature. 

Water is taken as the standard of comparison. 

Heat — Convected. When a liquid is heated from 
below, the currents of liquid ascend from the 
bottom to the top of the vessel, and the liquid 
acquires a uniform temperature. This transport 
of heat, by means of matter, is known as con- 
vection. 

The layers of a liquid or gas which are nearest 
the source of heat, are expanded, and thus 
become specifically lighter than surrounding 
portions, consequently they rise; while colder 



218 plumbers' dictionary. 

and consequently heavier portions descend, are 
heated in their turn and then ascend to make 
way for other colder portions. Thus, however 
badly a liquid or gas conduct heat, it can rapidly 
acquire a uniform temperature by the convection 
of heat. 

Hopper. The basin of a water closet or sink, 
tunnel shaped. 

Hook. A piece of metal formed into a curve 
for holding and sustaining pipe, etc. 

Hydrant. A valve and spout connecting with 
a water main, by which water may be drawn 
from the latter. As used in the yards of city 
houses, the spout is elevated sufficiently to allow 
it- to discharge into a tub or bucket, the valve 
being operated by a handle. Provision is also 
made for allowing the contents of the discharge 
pipe to run back out of the way of frost. 

Hygiene. A system of principles or rules de- 
signed for the promotion of health. 

Hydraulics. That branch of science which 
treats of fluids in motion, especially of water, its 
action in the works and machinery for conduct- 
ing or raising it. 

Hydrodynamics. That branch of the science 
of mechanics which relates to fluids, or which 
treats of the laws of motion, and action of non- 
elastic fluids. The principle of dynamics as 
applied to water and other fluids. 



219 



Hydkostatics. That branch of scieDce which 
relates to the pressure and equilibrium of non- 
elastic fluids, as water, mercury, etc ; the prin- 
ciple of statics applied to water and other liquids. 
The science of equilibrium of liquids and other 
bodies, (especially solids,) in the maintainance 
of whose equilibrium liquids are concerned. 

Hydrogen. A colorless inodorous gas, the 
lightest known substance, being 14% times 
lighter than atmospheric air. It is very inflam- 
mable, burning in the air with an almost color- 
less flame and uniting with the oxygen to form 
water. Hydrogen is usually prepared by dis- 
solving zinc in dilute sulphuric acid, when the 
metal takes the place of the hydrogen which is 
evolved. 

Hydrogen is never met with free in nature, but 
it forms one-ninth part of water, and is a con- 
stant constituent of organic bodies. The oxidiz- 
ing properties of hydrogen are very great. 
When added to various metallic solutions it 
quickly raises the metal to the highest state of 
oxidization. Hydrogen was first liquefied in 1877. 

Sulphuretted Hydrogen. A product of the 
putrefaction of organic substance containing sul- 
phur, and is one of the causes of the sickening 
smell of drains, etc. 

It is one-fifth heavier than air. Water absorbs 
about three times its volume of sulphuretted 
hydrogen at the ordinary temperature. The gas 



220 plumbers' dictionary. 

is very combustible, burning with a blue flame 
like that of sulphur. The gas causes fainting 
when inhaled in large quantity, and appears, 
much to depress the vital energy when breathed 
for any length of time even in a diluted state. 

Ice. Water brought to a temperature below 
32°. It solidifies with expansion. Ice is spec- 
ifically lighter than water which is just 
about to freeze, and therefore rises in it; its in- 
crease of dimensions is acquired with a force 
sufiicient to burst the strongest vessels. 

Sea and salt water freezes at a lower tempera- 
ture than pure water, but part of the salt separ- 
ates, and this ice when melted gives water that 
is fresher than the original. 

Iron. A metallic element very widely diffused 
in nature. In the perfectly pure state iron is 
almost unknown. In the arts it is met with in the 
forms of malleable iron, steel, and cast, mallea- 
ble being as free from impurities as it is possible 
to get it. Malleable, also known as wrought 
iron, is of a grayish color. Its melting point is 
2786°. In dry air malleable iron is unchanged, 
but air and moisture quickly oxidize it, forming 
a red rust, which in time would eat through the 
whole mass. 

Ladle. A pan with a handle to hold molten 
metal. 

Lamp Black. A black pigment consisting of 



PLUMBEKS' DICTIONARY. 221 

pure charcoal, the particles of which are in a 
very fine state of division. 

It is principally prepared from refuse tar, 
resin or turpentine. The tar, resin, etc., is burned 
in iron pots or a furnace, a quantity of air just 
sufficient to support combustion being admitted, 
in order to produce a dense smoke with little 
flame. The soot obtained from the imperfect 
combustion of the above mentioned matters and 
contains resin, nitrogen and sulphur. 

Lavatoky. a place for washing. 

Liquid. A substance whose parts change their 
relative position on the slightest pressure and 
therefore retain no definite form: a fluid that is 
not aeriform. All liquids are fluids, but many 
fluids, as air and the gases, are not liquid. 

Lead. Lead is of a bluish gray color, very 
soft and easily rolled out; its tenacity is very 
slight. 

The proper name for lead ore is galena, or sul- 
phide of lead. It melts at about 617°, 

Lead Sheet. Made by pouring molten lead on 
an iron table with raised edges and then rolled 
down to the required thickness. 

The modern way is to cast a plate of lead and 
beat and roll the metal to the required thickness. 
This is called milling. 

Lead Furnace. The furnace by which the ores 
of lead are reduced to the metallic state. The 



222 



8ulphuret, commonly known as galena, is the 
principle source from whicli the pure metal is 
derived. The ore having been picked, is broken 
and washed to separate earthy and silicious 
matters. It is then roasted until about half the 
charge is converted into sulphide of lead, when 
this and the portion which remains intact are 
thoroughly mixed together, and the heat rapidly 
increased, by which means sulphurous-acid gas 
is driven off and pure metallic lead remains. 

Lead Pot. A crucible or pot for melting lead. 

Leader. A rain water pipe to conduct to the 
ground the water collected by the spouting. 

Main — Hydraulics. A large or principal water 
or gas pipe. The smaller are termed supply or 
service pipes or branches. 

Marble. A granular and crystalline carbonate 
of lime. There are many fancy varieties used by 
marble workers ; these have names derived from 
the geographical position of the quarries, the 
color, marking, etc. 

Polished marble is that which has been worked 
by a succession of materials of gradually increas- 
ing fineness. Marble is first rubbed with sand- 
stone and the beater, afterward with pumice 
stone. 

It is polished by hand with a linen cushion 
and emery dust for colored, and powder of cal- 
cium tin for white marble. 



223 



Metals, ElemeDtary mineral substances 
possessing certain attributes, particularly the 
luster called metallic, by which it is distin- 
guished from other inorganic substances. 

With few exceptions metals possess consider- 
able specific gravity, hardness and cohesion, and 
require a high degree of heat to liquefy them. 
The qualities possessed by metals, are luster, or 
the power of reflecting light ; tenacity, or resist- 
ance to any attempt to pull asunder their par- 
ticles; malleability, or the capability of being 
hammered or rolled in thin sheets; ductility, or 
the property of being draw^n out into wire ; and 
fusibility, or the property of becoming .liquid 
when heated. 

Meter. — Water. An instrument for measuring 
the consumption of water. The amount of flow 
is indicated on dials. 

Xaptha. Applied to many liquids somewhat 
similar in physical properties, but differing 
chemically. 

It includes most of the lighter and more vola- 
tile inflammable liquids obtained by destinctive 
distillation or from mineral oils. 

Nitrogen. An elementary gas which forms 
about four-fifths of our atmosphere, the remain- 
ing one-fifth being oxygen. The two are mechan- 
ically mixed, not mechanically combined. It is 
invisible and elastic, without odor or color. 

It immediately extinguishes animal life. It 



224 plumbers' dictionary. 

cannot support combustion and a lighted candle 
immediately ceases to burn when placed in it. 

It has no taste. It is absorbed very sparingly 
by water, and is a little lighter than atmospheric 
air. Combined with oxygen, in different propor- 
tions it forms nitrous oxide, or laughing gas, 
and nitric acid. 

Combined with hydrogen, it forms ammonia 
and enters into the composition of most animal 
substances. 

Nozzle. A spout or projecting vent of a 
faucet, or any discharge pipe, etc. 

Oakum. The course portion separated from 
flax or hemp in hackling. Used by plumbers in 
packing soil pipe joints, etc. 

Oxygen. An elastic fluid, invisible, without 
odor, and is a little heavier than atmospheric air. 
It is the respirable part of air, and was called vital 
air, from its being essential to animal life ; but 
it received its present name from its property of 
giving acidity to compounds in which it predom- 
inates. It is the most abundant of all the ele- 
ments, discovered by Priestly in 1774. 

Oxygen is the most extensively diffused of 
material substances. In union with nitrogen, it 
forms atmospheric air, of which it constitutes 
about a fifth part. Water contains eight-ninths 
by weight, and it exists in most vegetable and 
animal products, acid salts and oxides. Oxygen 



PLUMBEKS' DICTIONARY. 225 

gas nowhere exists pure and uncombined. It is 
a very energetic agent, its most striking property- 
is that of exciting and supporting combustion. 
Atmospheric air sustains life only from the 
oxygen it contains; the exhausted blood 
abstracts it from the atmosphere by means of the 
lungs, giving off at the same time carbonic acid 
gas. Pure oxygen proves too stimulating for 
animal exi stance. 

Pipe. A tube for conyeyance of water, air, or 
other fluid. Clay pipes were used by the Komans 
for acqueducts, drains, etc. Pipes are now made 
of iron, both cast and wrought, lead, tin, copper, 
etc. 

Aii^ Pipe. A tube by which heated air is con- 
veyed into an apartment or through which to 
withdraw foul air from, or force pure air into, 
close places. 

Brain Pipe. Clay pipe, known as drain tile, 
laid beneath the surface of the. soil, below plough 
depth, to carry off superfluous water and increase 
the fertility and ease of working the soil. 

Iron Pipe. Welded iron tubes are made of 
skelps bent to circular form, heated to a welding 
heat in an appropriate furnace, and then, on a 
draw bench, drawn through a pair of jaws with 
bell mouths. The mouths are opened to receive 
the end of the skelp and then closed. For cast 



226 PLLMBEKS' DICTION AKY. 

iron water pipes, working tension may be one- 
sixth of the bnrsting tension. 

Stone Pipe. What are now known as stone pipes 
are made of concrete or some other form of vitri- 
fied stone. 

Service Pipe. One for conducting gas or water 
from the street main into a building. 

Lined Pipe. Lead and other pij)es are lined 
with tin to prevent the formation of deleterious 
salts by the action of the water on the lead or 
other metal. 

Although the action of pure water upon me- 
tallic lead when there is no access of air to the 
pipe is so slight as to be deemed injurious, yet it 
is found in practice that owing to various causes, 
all water used for domestic purposes containing 
air and mineral impurities, the water passing 
through lead becomes charged to a greater or 
less extent with the poisonous salts of lead. 
Tin is much less subject to this action and its 
salts harmless. 

Lead Pipe. Lead pipe is made by casting, 
drawing and pressing. It may be cast in lengths 
in an ordinary core mold. In drawing, the lead 
is cast in an iron mold upon a rod o€ the intended 
bore, leaving the metal thicker than it is in- 
tended to be eventually. The pipe with a 
mandril inserted, is then drawn through open- 
ings in steel plates of gradually decreasing 



22^ 



diameter whicli reduces it to the required thick- 
ness. 

In pressing lead pipe the melted lead is forced 
through a circular throat whose axis is occupied 
by a mandril. The lead is forced through at such 
a rate that it solidifies when exposed to cold sur- 
faces. The machinery for pressing lead pipe 
was patented by Hague, in England in 1822. 

Plumbek. The Latin name for lead is 
Plumbum J hence the nskme plumber as one who 
works in lead and adjusts lead pijjes and aj^par- 
atus for the conveyance of water and drainage. 
The modern plumber is one who installs or 
arranges pipes for conducting water and sewage. 

Plumbers' Tools. Turn pin, side edge, shave 
hook, dresser, tap borer, caulking irons, grease 
box, rasp, ladle, copper bolt with swivel, bend- 
ing pin, bossing stick and wiping cloths. 

Pneumatics. Belonging to the air. The 
mechanics of gases. This science is usually 
understood to embrace the motion and equilib- 
rium of gases. The mechanical properties of the 
air or other elastic fluids, as of their weight 
pressure, elasticity and the like. 

Pump. A machine for raising fluids. The 
invention is generally ascribed to Ctesibius, 
about 224 B. C. 

Atmospheric Pump. One in which the press- 
ure of the air forces water into the pipe below 



'228 plumbers' dictionary. 

the plunger. The principle was explained by 
Torricelli, the pupil of Galileo, whose attention, 
as well as that of his master, was drawn to the 
matter by the unsuccessful efforts of the Floren- 
tine pump makers, to raise water, by its means, 
to a height much over 30 feet. In fact, at eleva- 
tions above the sea level it can only be lifted to 
a height in feet about equal to the number of 
inches at which the mercury in the barometer 
stands; one inch of mercury corresponding to 
about 13 inches of water. 

• 
Air Pump. The essential part in the air pump 

is a metallic or glass tube answering to the 
barrel of a common pump, having a valve at the 
bottom, opening upwards; and a movable piston 
corresponding I o the sucker of a pump, the piston 
or cylinder being furnished also with a valve 
opening outward. 

Bilge Pump — NauticcA. One for pumping water 
from the bilge or bottom of a vessel. 

Centrifugal Pump. A rotary pump in which 
the fluid is driven outwardly from the center at 
which it is received and diverted into an upward 
direction. 

Cistern Pump. A lift or force pump, for draw- 
ing water from the moderate depth of a cistern. 

Double Acting Pump. One which throws water 
at each stroke. In the upright pump the side 



plumbers' dictionary. 229 

chambers have each of them induction and 
eduction valves. 

The horizontal pumf), the cylinder has induc- 
tion and eduction ports on opposite sides. 

Force Pump. A pump which delivers the 
water under pressure, so as to eject it forcibly or 
deliver it at an elevation. The term is used to 
distinguish it from a lift pump, in which the 
water is lifted and simply runs out of the spout. 

The single aoting, force pump is that in which 
the lift and delivery are alternate. 

The double acting, is that in which the pass- 
ages are duplicated, so that a lift and delivery 
are obtained by each motion of the plunger. 
Each stroke causes a continuous stream, which 
is rendered more uniform by an air chamber. 

Lift Pump. One by which the liquid to be 
raised is lifted, instead of forced, from its recep- 
tacle to the point of discharge. To this class 
belongs the ordinary atmospheric pump. 

Pneumatic Pump. An air exhaust or force 
pump. 

Plunger or Piston Pump. One having a solid 
piston instead of a bucket. 

Plumbers^ Force Pump, One used by plumbers 
for clearing choked pipes. It may be attached 
to the delivery end of the pipe and act by suc- 
tion, or may be applied to effect the desired 
object by hydraulic pressure. 



230 PLTJMBEES' DICTIONARY. 

Suction Pump. A pump in which the water is 
raised within reach of the bucket or plunger by 
atmospheric pressure. The plunger or bucket is 
placed above the level of the water, the latter 
rising by atmospheric pressure as the bucket is 
raised. 

Between the upward strokes of the bticket, a 
clack valve below the bucket falls, and prevents 
the return of the water in the rising tube or 
suction. 

Test Pump. A force pump for testing the 
strength of boilers, pipe, etc., by hydraulic press- 
ure. It is provided with a gauge for showing 
the pressure in pounds, applied to the square 
inch. 

Pump Box. The casing of the valves. 

Pump Bakkel. The cylinder in which the 
pump box and plunger work. 

Pump Hook. A hook on a long rod used for 
setting the lower pump box in the barrel. 

Pump Rod. Piston rod. The rod which is 
suspended from the end of the brake or handle 
and attached at its lower end to the bucket or 
"upper box " or plunger. 

Ram — Hydraulic. A water raising device in 
which the concussion produced by arresting a 
descending body of water is made to force a 



plumbers' dictionary. 231 

smaller quantity of water to a height greater 
than the fall. 

The operation is as follows: The water from a 
cistern or spring flows down the pipe to the air 
chamber, which has a valve hung to raise in the 
chamber, the flow of water past this valve strikes 
another, or waste valve, below, the sudden re- 
action causes the valve in the air chamber to 
open and allow a portion of the water to enter; 
this done the valve drops, causing a flow through 
the pipe until the water has gained energy to 
again raise the valve, when the same operation 
is repeated. The water ram is efficacious only 
when there is a larger supply of water at com- 
mand than is necessary to be raised, as only one- 
seventh of the water is lifted, but its power and 
constant unfailing action renders it very valuable. 

Eaeefactiox — Physics, The action of a prop- 
erty possessed by gases and aeriform fluids by 
which the intervals between the particles of 
matter composing them may be increased or di- 
minished, so that the same weight of the gas 
occupies a greater space. 

Rarefaction is produced by diminishing the 
pressure or by increasing the temperature. 

It is directly proportioned to the diminution 
of ijressure, and no limits to it have as yet been 
discovered. 

Reservoir. A pond or tank, usually of large 
dimensions where water is collected and retained 



232 plumbers' dictionary. 

to be delivered to distant places through pipes. 
The reservoirs of ranges are usually vertical 
iron or copper boilers, connected by pipes with 
the water supply of the city or house tank. The 
water from the street main or tank passes 
through pipes in the fire chamber, or through a 
water front and thence to the boiler for storage. 
A pipe extends from the boiler, or hot water res- 
ervoir, to the house fixtures, for hot water 
supply. 

Kesin. a vegetable product composed of 
hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen. There are many 
varieties of resins, derived from different species 
of trees. The most common, known as rosin is 
derived from the distillation of crude turpentine. 
The residue left after the distillation of oil of 
turpentine from the raw turpentine. It softens 
or melts with heat and is used as a flux by 
plumbers in soldering. 

Sanitary Service. The practical application 
of the laws which govern hygiene. Pertaining 
to health. 

Seweh. An underground channel for convey 
ing away the surface water and liquid refuse 
matter of towns and cities. 

Sewage. The surface drainage, excrementi- 
tious matter, and other fllth carried away by 
sewers. Sewerage is a term applied to the sew- 
ers and drains of a community collectively. 



» 



plumbers' dictionary. 233 

Shave Hook. A triangular plate of steel with 
sharpened edges, and in scraping the surfaces of 
metal which are to be soldered. The object 
being to clean the metal to get a good surface 
for solder to adhere. 

Sink. A tray into which slops or wash water 
are poured to dispose of them by means of a pipe 
which carries them to a drain. Sinks are used 
in kitchens, pantries, etc. 

Siphon. A bent tube having one end longer 
than the other; used for transferring liquids 
from higher to lower levels over an intervening 
higher point than the vessel desired to emjDty. 

It acts by atmospheric pressure, and cannot be 
depended upon to act in transferring fluids over 
this intervening point higher than about 30 feet 
at sea level, and a less height at great elevations. 

SoAPSTONE. Steatite. A silicate of magnesia, 
with a smooth greasy feel like that of soap. It 
is infusible in any ordinary furnace heat. When 
strongly heated it loses the small portion of 
water it contains, becomes harder and suscep- 
tible to polish. 

Solder. A metal or alloy used to unite adja- 
cent edges or surfaces. It must be rather more 
fusible than the metal or metals to be united, 
and with this object the component i^arts and 
their relative amounts are varied to suit the 
character of the work. The flux for lead is tallow 



234 plumbers' dictionary. 

or resin, for copper or brass, sal-ammoniac and 
for zinc, chloride of zinc. 

Soldering. The process of uniting two pieces 
of the same or different metals by using a metal 
or alloy which by fusion combines with either. 

Soldering Autogenous. The junction by 
fusion of the edges of metal without the inter- 
vention of solder. The edges being brought 
together and brightened, are held under a jet of 
burning gas urged by a blow pipe, which melts 
the edges so that they run together. 

Soldering Iron. The tool by which solder is 
melted and applied in the ordinary method of 
working. 

It is, however, a block of copper, called a 
copper bit, or hatchet bolt, on the end of an iron 
rod, made either with swivel joint or rigid. It 
has a pointed or wedge shaped end. It is tinned 
before using, by heating to a dull red, filing oil 
the scale, to produce a clean metallic surface, 
then rubbing, first on a lump of sal-ammoniac, 
next upon a brick on which a few drops of solder 
have been placed and afterwards cleaned by 
wiping on a cloth. 

Specific GIravity. The relative weight of a 
ponderable substance compared with another 
which is taken as a standard. For solids and 
liquids, water, and for gases, air, are invariably 
adopted as the standard. 



PLUMBEKS' DICTIONARY. 235 

The specific gravity of a body is found by 
weighiDg the body in air and then in water. 

Subtract the weight in water from the weight 
in air, and divide the weight in air by the differ- 
ence. The quotient is the specific gravity re- 
quired. 

Sprixg. a fountain of water or issue of water 
from the earth, or the basin of water at the 
place of issue. Eain penetrates the ground and 
oozes into and through certain strata, but being 
obstructed by other strata it forms cavities and 
subterranean reservoirs at various depths, many 
of which, when full, force their way out of the 
ground and form springs. About one-third of 
the rainfall is supposed to be absorbed in this 
manner. 

Stoneware. A grade of ceramic ware of great 
hardness and value. It is composed of pipe clay 
calcined and ground flint and sand. The dry 
clay is pulverized and sifted. The molded article 
is placed in a kiln with pieces of well sanded 
clay between theia to present adhesion. A slow 
fire dissipates the moisture, and the heat is then 
raised until the flame and ware have the same 
color. The glaze is then added by pouring com- 
mon salt into the top of the kiln. This is vola- 
tilized by heat, becomes attached to the surface 
of the ware, and is decomposed, the muriatic 
acid flying off and leaving the soda behind it, to 
form a fine, thin glaze on the ware, which resists 
ordinary acids. 



236 PLUMBEKS' DICTTONAEY. 

Street Washer. A name given to a hydrant 
from which the .street may be washed or sprink- 
led, by a jet from a hose or nozzle. 

Sucker. The piston of a pump. 

Suction. The process of drawing fluids into a 
pipe or other receptacle by exhaustion of the 
air. 

Sulphur. Brimstone — Chem. A substance 
which is hard, brittle and usually of a yellow 
color, without smell unless rubbed or heated. 
It is a non-conductor of electricity. It melts at 
216°, becomes liquid at 250°, boiling point 480°, 
vaporizes at 600°. It is found in Italy and South 
America. It is of volcanic origen. 

Tail. Piece. The suction pipe of a pump. It 
communicates with the pump barrel, through a 
clack valve, and in the case of metal pumps is in 
two parts, the upper one of which has a screw 
thread at its lower end, by which it is secured to 
the lower part. 

Tallow. The suet of the ox and sheep, melted 
and strained. It consists of carbon, hydrogen 
and oxygen. 

Tank. A chamber, cistern or vessel of large 
size to contain liquids for storage, to dispense as 
occasion demands. 

Tapping. Boring a hole in a pipe, etc., to 



plumbers' dictionaky. 237 

insert a branch pipe, faucet or plug as required. 
Screw threading a hole. 

Tap Boree. A tapering boring instrument 
for tapping or opening lead pipe for branches, 
etc. 

Tin. a metallic element of crystalline tex- 
ture. A brilliant white metal. It melts at 428° 
and volatilizes at a white heat. 

TiNXiXG. The method of coating other metals 
with tin. 

Trap. A depression in a sewer or waste pipe 
to prevent passage of air. Should be made in 
such a manner that its seal cannot become 
affected by the rapid discharge of a liquid 
through or past it. 

It is an adjunct to any vessel such as a wash- 
bowl, water closet, urinal or sink, which dis- 
charges by pipe into sewers or drains, up which 
a current of foul air is liable to pass. Some of 
them are very simple in construction, and con- 
sist of a bent tube so curved as to retain a certain 
body of water, thus shutting off the passage of 
air, and an overflow is afforded to the water as it 
reaches a certain height. 

Trap^ Bell Pattern, It consists of a drum 
shaped cylinder with an inlet pipe at bottom and 
outlet pipe near the upper end. The inlet pipe 
being submerged prevents the entrance of foul 
air and admits the outflow of water. 



238 



Steam Trap. A self-acting device for the 
discharge of condensed water from steam engines 
or steam pipes. 

The preferable forms are automatic. Some 
are thermostatic arrangements in which the dift- 
erence between the heat of steam and the heat 
of water actuates a valve to discharge collected 
water; others act by the rising of a float in the 
water chamber ; others by the w^eight of the col- 
lected water. 

Tue:n^ Piis^. a top shaped plug for enlarging 
pip^s to allow the entrance of another pipe. 

Union. A tubular coupling for pipe. 

Ukinal. a vessel to receive urine, usually 
supplied with running water. This method and 
periodical flushing are most commonly used. 
Urine discharged into cold water loses its nox- 
ious vapor or gas. 

Yacuum. a space devoid of all matter, and 
generally conceived by the ancients to exist. 
An absolute vacuum is considered impossible 
and when the term, vacuum, is used it indicates 
a less pressure than the atmosphere or a partial 
vacuum. 

Yalve. a kind of lid or cover of a tube or 
vessel so contrived as to open one way, but 
which, the more forcibly it is pressed the other 
way shuts the aperture; so that it admits the 
entrance of a fluid into the tube, but prevents its 



plumbers' dictionary. 289 

return; or admits its escape, but prevents its 
re-entrance. 

Ball Valve. A valve of spherical shape occupy- 
ing -a hollow, segmental seat; raised by the 
passage of the fluid and descending by gravity. 
To i)revent back pressure. 

Float Valve. A valve actuated by a float open- 
ing or closing the part according to the level of 
the liquid in the chamber where the float is 
placed equivalent to a ball cock. 

Safety Valve. A valve by means of which a 
boiler is prevented from bursting by the force of 
steam. That a safety valve may be relied on, it 
must be frequently examined, as it is liable to 
adhere to its seat. 

Suction Valve. The valve below the plunger 
or bucket of a pump, and which is lifted by at- 
mospheric pressure acting upon the water 
beneath it, as the plunger is raised. 

Yapor. Yapors are the aeriform fluids into 
which volatile substances, such as ether, alcohol, 
water and mercury are changed by the absorp- 
tion of heat. Yolatile liquids are those which 
thus possess the property of passing into the 
aeriform state ; and fixed liquids those which do 
not form vapor at any temperature without 
undergoing chemical decomjposition, such as 
fatty oils. 

There are some solids, such as ice, which can 



240 



directly form vapors, without first becoming 
liquid, vapors are transparent like gases, and 
generally colorless. 

The passage of a liquid into the gaseous state 
is designated by the ge-neral term, vaporization; 
the term vaporization, especially refers to the 
slow production of vapor at the free surface of 
the liquid, and boiling to its rapid production in 
the mass of the liquid itself. 

Like gases, vapors have a certain elastic press- 
ure on the sides of the vessels in which they are 
contained. 

Yelocity — Mechanics. Kate of motion ; the 
relation of motion to time, nieasured by the num- 
ber of units of space passed over by the moving 
* uody in a unit of time, usually the number fo 
feet in a second. 

Initial velocity is the velocity of a moving body 
at starting. Uniform velocity is that in which 
the same number of units of space are described 
in each successive unit of time. 

Ventilation. The process of changing the 
air of rooms and other closed places so that a 
certain standard of purity may be preserved not- 
withstanding the vibratijon which the air under- 
goes from the breath of inhabitants, the products 
of combustion of illuminating agents and other 
causes. 

Carbonic acid forms the most ready index of 



241 



the ventilation, four parts in ten thousand, as 
th^ standard for pure air. 

Waste. The refuse from a fixture. Overflow 
water from a sink or iy^t*. A pipe for running 
, ciste water from a pJuinblu^ fixture, such as a 
sink, etc. 

Washer. An angular disk of metal, wood or 
leather, which is placed between surfaces that 
are secured together, where it forms a packing. 

Wash Bowl. A lavatory, either oval or 
round, for the hands or face. 

Water. Composed of two gaseous elements, 
oxygen and hydrogen. In the pure state and at 
the ordinary temperature, water is transparent, 
free from taste and smell and almost colorless. 

Water Front. A permanent reservoir at the 
front of the fire chamber of a stove or range to 
utilize the heat of the fire in keeping a supply of 
hot water. The water from the boiler passing 
through pipes connected with the water front 
and returned. 

Water Closet. An appliance with water 
supply to receive the excrement from the person 
and by the flush or flow of water, discharges its 
contents into a drain or soil pipe connected with 
a sewer or cesspool. 

Water Meter. A machine for measuring the 



242 plumbers' dictionary. 

amount of water received or discharged througli 
an orifice. 

Well. A shaft dug or bored in the ground to 
obtain water, and walled around with stone or 
brick to prevenj the i^ides from falling in. 

Tube Point Well. A spear point at the bottom 
end of a perforated tube for a driven well. 

Artesian Well. Named from the French prov- 
ince of Artois, where they have been used for 
centuries. 

Hydraulic Well. A well bored to a consider- 
able depth until it reaches a subterranean basin. 
The water then rises in the tube in consequence 
of the hydrostatic pressure and in some cases 
will spring into the air from the mouth of the 
well. 

Zinc. A metallic element of a bluish white 
color; somewhat brittle, but malleable when hot, 
and fairly permanent in air. 

It melts at 773°. It is a protecting coating for 
iron, under the name of galvanized iron. 

Zinc dissolves easily in acids and is largely 
used for preparing hydrogen, for scientific pur- 
poses. It is said to be non-poisonous. 

Zymotic Disease. Any epidemic, contagious 
or sporadic affection, acting on the system like a 
ferment. 



*^ 



'»i 



OCT 11 I90I 



OCT 11 wot 



Library of Congress 
Branch Bindery, 1902 



